Difference between revisions of "Transportation"

From Securipedia
Jump to navigation Jump to search
 
(114 intermediate revisions by 6 users not shown)
Line 1: Line 1:
  +
[[Category:Mobility]]
  +
[[Category:Urban object]]
  +
[[File: Trans vehicles.jpg|right|200px|Transportation|link=]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport '''Transportation'''] means moving objects or people from one location to another.
  +
A '''transportation''' facility is an [[urban object]] designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and [http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/cargo goods] from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by [[Transport Infrastructure|transport infrastructure]].
   
  +
==Description==
−
= Transportation =
  
  +
Transportation is divided into private and [[modes of transport|public transport]]. An important distinction in the type of transport is [[modes of transport|mode of transport]]. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:
   
  +
{| class="wikitable"
−
Transport or transportation is the movement of people, cattle, animals and goods<ref>see: [[wikipedia:cargo|Wikipedia]]</ref> from one location to another. Transport is important since it enables trade between peoples, which in turn establishes civilizations<ref name="ftn6"> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport</ref>.Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl].= [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_transport Transportation] system =A transportation system can be defined as “the assemblage of components associated with a specific means of transport”(BRON: Transportation security and the role of resilience - A foundation for operational metrics.pdf / Tolley andTurton,1995,p.42).== Regional [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_transport Transportation] system ==A regional transportation system can be defined as the combination of vehicles, infrastructure, and operations that enable the movements or “satisfy the travel demand” of people and goods within a defined region (BRON: Transportation security and the role of resilience - A foundation for operational metrics.pdf / Cascetta, 2001,p.xv; see also Tolley and Turton,1995,p.13; Black, 2003, p.3).== Urban [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Modes_of_transport Transportation] system ==An urban transportation system can be defined as the set of transport infrastructures and modes that support urban movements of passengers and freight. It generally expresses the level of accessibility (bron: [http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/ch6c2en.html http://people.hofstra.edu/geotrans/eng/ch6en/conc6en/ch6c2en.html] ).== Policy areas in the transportation system ==From RAND Europe and TNO<ref name="ftn7"> RAND Europe - Systeemdiagram voor het beleidsveld vervoer en verkeer.pdf</ref> The transportation system can be described as a market: a system with dynamic interaction between demand and supply. In this interaction, implicit and explicit choices are made on both the demand and supply sides. These choices interact.
  
  +
|-
  +
! Transportation network object type !! Description !! Icon
  +
|-
  +
| [[Road network]]|| A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).|| [[Image:Roadnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Road network|link=Road network]]
  +
|-
  +
| [[Rail network]] || The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services. || [[Image:Railnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=Rail network]]
  +
|-
  +
| [[Hub]]s ||A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations [[Image:Station.jpg|border|x30px|Station|link=Hub#Stations]] for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports [[Image:Port.jpg|border|x30px|Port|link=Hub#Port]] for water or air transport to change modality.|| [[Image:transporthub.jpg|center|x50px|Hubs|link=Hub]]
  +
|}
   
  +
Transport is important because it enables communication, trade and other forms of exchange between people, that in turn establishes civilizations.
   
  +
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to manage traffic flows, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl]. Yet, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or [[Crowd|crowds]].
−
Within the overall traffic and transport market, three market segments can be distinguished, each of which has its own supply and demand side: a trip market, a transport market, and a traffic market. The three markets and their relationships are depicted graphically below:
  
   
  +
== Functions ==
−
[[Image:]]
  
   
  +
=== Social ===
−
'''Figure : System diagram for the policy domain transport and traffic (Source: TNO rapport; Immers, B., Transportation System Analysis)'''
  
  +
High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities, and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation, and enhances quality of life.
   
  +
From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists:
−
== Trip Market ==
  
  +
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]];
−
In the trip market, the demand side consists of activities to be performed, whose location and time are as yet unknown. The supply side consists of the spatial and temporal distribution of locations where the activities could be performed and the trips associated with them. This market is synonym with the ''Land Use – Transport System''. The output of this market consists of a set of trip patterns: an allocation of the activities to location and times.
  
  +
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastructure failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]];
  +
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]].
   
  +
For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure.
−
== Transport Market ==
  
  +
This makes it important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].
−
The trip patterns (the output of the ''Trip Market'') become the demand side of the transport market: the demand for vehicles for ''Passenger Transport ''and ''Freight Transport and Logistics''. The supply side of the transport market consists of the available supply of vehicles and services to accommodate these trips (specified according to place and (time) and how they are perceived. The output of this market consists of a set of realized transport patterns: an allocation of trips to the different ''Modes of Transport ''and ''Transport Services.''
  
   
−
== Traffic Market ==
 +
=== Economic ===
  +
Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.<ref>NPTEL (2007): Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.</ref>. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to [[Primary economic impact|direct economic impacts]] which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers<ref>Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001): An introduction to geographical economics. Cambridge University Press</ref>. The [[Economic impact|economic impact]] of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]]. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation.
−
The transport patterns (the output of the ''Transport Market'') become the demand side of the traffic market: the demand for infrastructure to accommodate the vehicles and services. The supply side of the traffic market consists of the available infrastructure with all its attributes, such as ''Modes of Transport, Traffic Control Systems (Traffic Management Center), Roads, Rails, Terminals, Traffic Intersections, Canals, Bridges, Bicycle / Pedestrian Facilities''. The output of the traffic market consists of a set of realized ''travel patterns'': an allocation of teransport vehicles and services to the infrastructure.
  
   
  +
The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a micro-economic perspective<ref>Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Micro-economics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.</ref> with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the micro-economic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed<ref>Rodrique, J.P. & T. Notteboom (2013): The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.</ref>.
−
= Operations =
  
  +
The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society.
−
Operations deal with the way the vehicles are operated, and the procedures set for this purpose including financing, legalities and policies. In the transport industry, operations and ownership of infrastructure can be either public or private, depending on the country and mode<ref name="ftn8"> http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport</ref>.
  
   
  +
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, groups of people (companies), and in extreme cases on society as a whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].
−
Usually, operations of transportation systems to perform [#_Traffic_management_1 traffic management] is done in traffic management centres.
  
   
  +
=== Mobility ===
−
From Wikipedia a mode of transport (or means of transport or transport mode or transport modality or form of transport) is a term used to distinguish substantially different ways to perform transport<ref name="ftn9"> [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_of_transport http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mode_of_transport]</ref>. The most dominant modes of urban transport are land transport, including [#_Road_transport road], [#_Rails rail], [#_Water_transport water] and [#_Air_transport air transport]. Other modes also exist, including pipelines, cable transport, and space transport. Transport using more than one mode is described as [#_Multimodal_transport multimodal transport]. Transportation that carries around many people and can be used by the public is known as [#_Mass_transport mass transport].
  
  +
[[Mobility]] enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. In developed and developing nations, a large fraction of people travel daily for work, shopping and social reasons. More information can be found on the [[mobility]] page.
   
  +
Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods.
−
Each mode has its own [#_Infrastructure infrastructure], vehicles, and [#_Operations operations], and often has unique regulations. Each mode of transport therefore also has different security issues which should be accounted for in the design and operation processes.
  
  +
For the first, different [[Modes of transport|modes of transport]] are available, such as [[Modes of transport#Road transport|road transport]] ([[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]], [[Modes of transport#Cycling|cycling]], [[Modes of transport#Automobile|car driving]], [[Modes of transport#Bus|buses]]) and [[Modes of transport#Rail transport|rail transport]]. Important for passenger transport is also [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]]. Especially public transport has a high security risk. The past decades have shown the vulnerability of the public transport system for terrorist attacks by several tragic incidents, e.g. the 2004 Madrid train bombings<ref name="ftn1">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings</ref>, the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings<ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref>, and several attacks on the London Underground<ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref>.
   
  +
The transportation of goods is called [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight transport and logistics]]. It concerns the distribution of goods from the source to their destination, such as warehouses or terminals for further distribution to e.g. shops. This can involve different modes of transport as well.
−
= Road transport =
  
−
People travelling on the road are either pedestrians, cyclists or they are using a certain type of vehicle, such as [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Automobile automobiles], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bicycles bicycles], [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Buses buses], vans or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Truck trucks]. Passenger transport may furthermore be [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_transport public], where operators provide scheduled services, or [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Private_transport private].
  
   
  +
Transportation is facilitated by its [[Road network|road network]], [[Rail network|rail network]] and the [[Hub|hubs]].
−
Potential risks for road transport are blocked roads and traffic accidents. Blocked roads can be prevented or the consequences can be minimized by using [#_Traffic_management traffic management], such [#_Incident_management as incident management] and designing a [#_Robustness robust road network]. Traffic accidents can be minimized by certain measures for [#_Road_safety road safety] and the consequences can again be minimized with [#_Incident_management incident management].
  
   
  +
=== Safety ===
−
== Non-motorized transport ==
  
  +
Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly [[traffic safety]].
−
Insert text
  
⚫
== Walking ==
  
−
Insert text
  
   
−
== Cycling ==
 +
== Security Issues ==
  +
Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an [[attractive object]] for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:
−
Insert text== Other non-motorized modes ==Insert text== Light duty vehicles ==Insert text== Heavy duty vehicles ==Insert text=== Bus ==Insert text= Rail transport =Rail transport includes all transport over rails. This can be either for passenger or goods transport, and with different modes of transport, such as trains, metro and trams.With rail transport, more people or goods can be transported within the same transport vehicle (i.e.) than with road transport. However, there is less flexibility for choosing a different route or time. A schedule is needed to manage all vehicles/trains on the railroad network. Also, disruptions can have large consequences on the schedule, since passing a standstill train is not always possible. This makes a railway system especially vulnerable for incidents or possible terrorist attacks. == Train ==Insert text== Tram ==Insert text= Water transport =Water transport = Air transport =Air transport includes all transport through the air. In an urban or regional context this air transport includes local air traffic such as small airplanes or helicopters. From a broader perspective air transport within urban or regional areas include passenger and freight air routes that cross urban or regional areas. In the context of urban security air transport is explicitly high impact. As experienced during 9/11 and other terrorist threats the consequences of failing security are devastating. Air traffic is therefore extremely well monitored, both in terms of passengers or freight as in terms of routing and operations management. Security enforcement primarily takes place at the [#_Airports airports] incorporating many facets of security management.= Public transport =Public transport is passenger transport which is publicly available. This can furthermore be distinguished in collective and individual transport. Examples of collective public transport are transport by buses, tram metro, train and plane. Examples of individual public transport are taxis, and in some countries so called riksjas or tuk tuks (a bicycle or moped with a backseat for a few people).Public transport management is used to manage the public transport in order to be able to get people from A to B with public transport as efficiently as possible. If the public transport is disrupted due to a security issue, public transport management measures can be used to minimize the hindrance, such as sending temporary buses or letting trains drive over alternative routes.Public transport is very vulnerable to terrorist attacks, since many people use the same means of transport on the same time and the schedule and routes are publicly available. An attack is therefore easy and the consequences are big. = Freight transport and logistics =A special discipline within transportation is freight transport and logistics. It concerns the distribution of goods from the source to their destination, such as warehouses or terminals for further distribution to e.g. shops. This can involve different modes of transport. The total system of organizations, people, technology, activities, information and resources involved in moving a product or service from [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vendor_(supply_chain) supplier] to [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Customer customer] is called a ''supply chain''. Optimizing this chain is called supply chain optimization. This is mainly focused on time and cost minimization. Disruptions in the supply chain (possibly caused by security issues) mainly have economical consequences, while incidents in passenger transport also might have health consequences for people.= Multimodal transport =Insert text= Mass transport =Insert text
  
  +
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction by fanatics]]
  +
* [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]
  +
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing| Pickpocketing]]
  +
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]
  +
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]
  +
  ⚫
== Measures ==
  +
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:
  +
  +
* Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).
   
 
{{references}}
  
{{references}}

Latest revision as of 11:04, 20 November 2013

Transportation

Transportation means moving objects or people from one location to another.

A transportation facility is an urban object designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and goods from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by transport infrastructure.

Description

Transportation is divided into private and public transport. An important distinction in the type of transport is mode of transport. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:

Transportation network object type Description Icon
Road network A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).
Road network
Rail network The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services.
Rail network
Hubs A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations Station for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports Port for water or air transport to change modality.
Hubs

Transport is important because it enables communication, trade and other forms of exchange between people, that in turn establishes civilizations.

Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause air pollution and use large amounts of land. Good planning of transport is essential to manage traffic flows, and restrain urban sprawl. Yet, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or crowds.

Functions

Social

High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities, and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation, and enhances quality of life.

From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists:

For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure. This makes it important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such citizen participation.

Economic

Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.[1]. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to direct economic impacts which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers[2]. The economic impact of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called indirect economic effects. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation.

The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a micro-economic perspective[3] with the help of economic tools such as the social cost-benefit analysis in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the micro-economic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed[4]. The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society.

In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, groups of people (companies), and in extreme cases on society as a whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the economic impact of security threats). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the economic impact of security measures.

Mobility

Mobility enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. In developed and developing nations, a large fraction of people travel daily for work, shopping and social reasons. More information can be found on the mobility page.

Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods. For the first, different modes of transport are available, such as road transport (walking, cycling, car driving, buses) and rail transport. Important for passenger transport is also public transport. Especially public transport has a high security risk. The past decades have shown the vulnerability of the public transport system for terrorist attacks by several tragic incidents, e.g. the 2004 Madrid train bombings[5], the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings[6], and several attacks on the London Underground[7].

The transportation of goods is called freight transport and logistics. It concerns the distribution of goods from the source to their destination, such as warehouses or terminals for further distribution to e.g. shops. This can involve different modes of transport as well.

Transportation is facilitated by its road network, rail network and the hubs.

Safety

Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly traffic safety.

Security Issues

Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an attractive object for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:

Measures

The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:

  • Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).

Footnotes and references

  1. ↑ NPTEL (2007): Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.
  2. ↑ Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001): An introduction to geographical economics. Cambridge University Press
  3. ↑ Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Micro-economics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.
  4. ↑ Rodrique, J.P. & T. Notteboom (2013): The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.
  5. ↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings
  6. ↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings
  7. ↑ http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground
Retrieved from "https://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Transportation&oldid=13406"