Difference between revisions of "Economic effects of crime"

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[[Category:Economic]][[Category:Safety]]
  
[[Category:Economic]][[Category:Safety]]
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Crime imposes huge [[Economic impact|economic effects]] on European societies. These '''economic effects of crime''' are, in essence, a category of [[Economic impact|economic impact]].
   
  +
==Description==
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= {{PAGENAME}} =
  
  ⚫
Crime not only leads to material and immaterial costs for those who have become victimised, but crime also forces local and national authorities to spend billions on the prevention of crime and the detection, prosecution and punishment of criminals. For the Netherlands, for example, the costs of crime are estimated to be 20.2 billion euro in 2005<ref name=SEO>SEO (2007): De kosten van criminaliteit [The cost of crime]. Publication Number: 971.</ref>, approximately 4.1 percent of the GDP. The British Home office researchers Brand and Price (2000)<ref name=Brand>Brand, S. and R. Price (2000): The economic and social costs of crime. Home Office Research Study 217.</ref> estimate the costs of crime to be between £35 and £60 billion per year for England and Wales.
⚫
Crime imposes huge [[Economic impact|economic effects]] on European societies. These '''economic effects of crime''' are, in essence, the opposite of the positive [[Economic impact of urban planning|economic effects of urban development]] (or spatial development). A high and sustainable crime rate in a region will effect the local economy. This relationship is illustrated below:
 
   
  ⚫
The identification and the [[Estimation of the costs of crime|estimation of the costs of crime]] have received broad attention in economic literature and research, but the economic effect(s) and impact of crime on society is still an underexposed field of interest. One important reason of this lack of studies is that it is very difficult to quantify the costs of crime with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]], and especially the benefits since they are in most of the cases non-economic, e.g. health benefits, the benefits of living in a safe area, etc. Moreover, while economic analysis (such as [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]]) is common in many contexts, the results depend largely on the used methodologies, including the underlying assumptions and measured effects.<ref>For example: How does one economically quantify the reputation of local police with regards to enforcing safety?</ref>. Nevertheless, the fact remains that there is an economic impact related to crime (in both a direct and indirect way).
  +
  ⚫
Crime is a major part of every urban society, but it is not always as relevant for urban planners (e.g. cyber crime). In order to help the urban planner decide when the costs of crime should be considered, the Securipedia pages on [[urban object|urban objects]] do not just address the economic function of urban objects, but also the economic dimension of the more specific security threats.
  +
  ⚫
==Types of costs and economic effects of crime==
  ⚫
Economists use various definitions and terminology for categorising the economic impact of crime. The two main categories (used in Securipedia) are the primary and secondary economic impact of crime, also referred to as direct and indirect economic effects<ref>Primary economic impact (or direct effects) are generally defined as the initial, immediate economic output generated by a specific cause (in this case a criminal offence). Secondary economic impact (or indirect effects) are generated each time a subsequent transaction is made, for example, the impact of crime on the real estate value in the neighbourhood.</ref>.
  +
  +
This relationship is illustrated below in the clickable map:
 
<imagemap>
  
<imagemap>
  +
Image:Economic_impact_crime_v2.jpg|600px
   
  ⚫
rect 4 1 260 149 [[Crime|Crime]]
−
Image:Economics_impact_of_crime_2.jpg| 300px
  
  ⚫
rect 275 4 501 146 [[Primary economic impact|Primary economic impact ]]
⚫
rect 32 46 126 98 [[Crime|Crime]]
  
  +
rect 543 4 766 146 [[Secondary economic impact |Secondary economic impact]]
−
rect 195 5 344 46 [[Urban object|Urban object]]
  
−
rect 193 53 342 182 [[Primary economic impact|Primary economic impact]]
 +
rect 796 2 1038 145 [[Economic impact|Economic impact]]
⚫
rect 378 54 527 181 [[Secondary economic impact|Secondary economic impact]]
  
−
rect 375 6 528 46 [[Urban environment|Urban environment]]
  
   
 
desc bottom-left
  
desc bottom-left
 
</imagemap>
  
</imagemap>
−  
−
==Relevance==
  
⚫
Crime not only leads to material and immaterial costs for those who have become victimized, but crime also forces local and national authorities to spend billions on the prevention of crime and the detection, persecution and punishment of criminals. For the Netherlands, for example, the costs of crime are estimated to be 20.2 billion euro in 2005<ref>SEO (2007).''De kosten van criminialiteit''.</ref>, approximately 4.1 percent of the GDP. Brand and Price (2000)<ref>Brand, S. and R. Price (2000). ''The economic and social costs of crime''. Home Office Research Study 217.</ref> estimate the costs of crime to be between £35 and £60 billion per year for England and Wales.
  
−  
⚫
The identification and the [[comprises::Estimation of the costs of crime|estimation of the costs of crime]] have received broad attention in economic literature and research, but the economic effect(s) and impact of crime on society is still an underexposed field of interest. One important reason of this lack of studies, is that it is very difficult to quantify and monetarise the costs of crime with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]], and especially the benefits since they are in most of the cases non-economic, e.g., health benefits, the benefits of living in a safe area, etc. Moreover, while economic analysis (such as [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]]) is common in many contexts, the results depend largely on the used methodologies, including the underlying (subjective) assumptions and measured effects.<ref>An example: How does one economically quantify and monetarise the reputation of local police with regards to enforcing safety?</ref>. Nevertheless, it remains that there is an economic impact related to crime (in both a direct and indirect way).
  
−  
⚫
Crime is a major part of every urban society, but it is not always as relevant for urban planners (e.g. cyber crime). In order to help the urban planner decide when the costs of crime should be considered, the Securipedia pages on [[urban object|urban objects]] do not just address the economic function of urban objects, but also the economic dimension of the more specific security threats.
 
−  
⚫
==Types of costs and economic effects of crime==
  
⚫
Economists use various definitions and terminology for categorizing the economic impact of crime. The two main categories (used in Securipedia) are the primary and secondary economic impact of crime, also referred to as direct and indirect economic effects<ref>Primary economic impact (or direct effects) are generally defined as the initial, immediate economic output generated by a specific cause (in this case a criminal offence). Secondary economic impact (or indirect effects) are generated each time a subsequent transaction is made, for example, the impact of crime on the real estate value in the neighbourhood.</ref>.
  
   
 
=== Primary economic impact of crime ===
  
=== Primary economic impact of crime ===
−
In general, economists use two types of methods to further categorize the [[Primary economic impact|(primary) costs]] of crime<ref>Brand, S. and R. Price (2000). ''The economic and social costs of crime''. Home Office Research Study 217.</ref>. The first way is by defining the subject who bears the effects (victims, potential victims, society etc.). From an economic point of view, criminal offences can be aimed against:
 +
In general, economists use two types of methods to further categorise the [[Primary economic impact|(primary) costs]] of crime<ref name=Brand></ref>. The first way is by defining the subject who bears the effects (victims, potential victims, society etc.). From an economic point of view, criminal offences can be aimed against:
 
* individuals/households
  
* individuals/households
 
* the commercial sector/companies<ref>Business companies have to deal with crime, ranging from shoplifting and vandalism to piracy and counterfeiting. These crimes are committed by employees (theft, fraud, money laundering) and by outsiders (shoplifting, vandalism, etc.</ref>
  
* the commercial sector/companies<ref>Business companies have to deal with crime, ranging from shoplifting and vandalism to piracy and counterfeiting. These crimes are committed by employees (theft, fraud, money laundering) and by outsiders (shoplifting, vandalism, etc.</ref>
 
* the public sector/society
  
* the public sector/society
   
−
A second approach of categorizing is by breaking down the costs in relation to individual incidents (Davidson, 1999<ref>Davidson, N. (1999). Costing Burglary Reduction, in Brand, S. and R. Price (2000).''The economic and social costs of crime''. Home Office Research Study 217.</ref>). This way, the costs of crime are categorized as:
 +
A second approach of categorising, is by breaking down the costs in relation to individual incidents (Davidson, 1999<ref>Davidson, N. (1999): Costing Burglary Reduction. In Brand, S. and R. Price (2000): The economic and social costs of crime. Home Office Research Study 217.</ref>). This way, the costs of crime are categorised as:
 
# in '''anticipation of crime''': mainly costs of precaution measures to avoid crime such as locks, alarm prevention programs and surveillance.
 
# in '''anticipation of crime''': mainly costs of precaution measures to avoid crime such as locks, alarm prevention programs and surveillance.
 
# as a '''consequence of crime''': for instance, loss of property, medical and health care costs, victim support etc.
 
# as a '''consequence of crime''': for instance, loss of property, medical and health care costs, victim support etc.
 
# in '''response to crime''': costs considering police, prosecution, court proceedings, sanctions etc.
 
# in '''response to crime''': costs considering police, prosecution, court proceedings, sanctions etc.
−  
−
The identification and the estimation of the costs of crime is undertaken by several scientific researchers.
  
   
 
=== Secondary economic impact of crime ===
  
=== Secondary economic impact of crime ===
−
Crime not only leads to financial or physical damage and prevention costs, but also indirectly influences the local/regional and national economy of a country (the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|secondary economic impact]]). According to Detotto and Otranto (2010)<ref>Detotto,C. and E. Otranto (2010). ''Does crime affect Economic growth?'' KYKLOS, Vol.63–August 2010-No.3, 330-345.</ref>,“crime acts like a tax on the entire economy: it discourages domestic and foreign direct investments<ref>Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a direct investment by a business or enterprise in a foreign economy. The motives of FDI are diverse, for example, to reduce export costs (less transport and export tariffs) or to take advantage of local labour forces and know-how.</ref>. On a macro-economic level crime influences:
 +
Crime not only leads to financial or physical damage and prevention costs, but also indirectly influences the local/regional and national economy of a country (the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|secondary economic impact]]). According to Detotto and Otranto (2010)<ref>Detotto,C. and E. Otranto (2010):Does crime affect Economic growth? KYKLOS, Vol.63–August 2010-No.3, 330-345.</ref>,“crime acts like a tax on the entire economy: it discourages domestic and foreign direct investments<ref>Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a direct investment by a business or enterprise in a foreign economy. The motives of FDI are diverse, for example, to reduce export costs (less transport and export tariffs) or to take advantage of local labour forces and know-how.</ref>. On a macro-economic level crime influences: [[File:Graffiti.jpg|thumb|300px|Graffiti]]
 
* economic growth;
  
* economic growth;
 
* income;
  
* income;
Line 49: Line 45:
 
On a more local and regional level, economists define the following types of impact:
  
On a more local and regional level, economists define the following types of impact:
 
* business impact (crime reduces competitiveness of companies and investments)
  
* business impact (crime reduces competitiveness of companies and investments)
⚫
* impact on property value
  
 
* tourism impact
  
* tourism impact
 
* impact on quality of life/social capital
  
* impact on quality of life/social capital
  ⚫
* impact on property value
   
−
According to Tita, Petras and Greenbaum (2006)<ref>Tita, G., T. Petras, and R. Greenbaum (2006). Crime and Residential Choice: A Neighborhood Level Analysis of the Impact of Crime on Housing Prices. ''Journal of Quantitative Criminology'' Vol 22, No 4, Pp 299-317.</ref> “crime serves as an important catalyst for change in the socio-economic composition of communities. The effect crime has on the local property value is one of those catalyst effects. A study by Ihlanfeldt and Mayock (2009)<ref>Ihlanfeldt, K., T. Mayock (2009).''Crime and Housing Prices''. Department of Economics and DeVoe Moore Center, Florida State University</ref>, for example, concludes that a 10% increase in violent crimes within a neighbourhood is reducing property values by as much as 6%. Other research points out that criminal offences such as vandalism and graffiti (also) have a significant negative impact on real estate prices<ref>Gibbons, S. (2004). The costs of urban property crime. ''The Economic Journal'', 114 (499). ISSN 0013-0133.</ref>. Furthermore, in 2011, a [http://www.police.uk/ UK police website], where users can view the number of criminal offences at street level, led to worries among house owners and real estate agents that the house prices drop if crime rates are relatively high<ref>See: http://www.guardian.co.uk/money/2011/feb/01/police-crime-website-house-prices</reF>.
 +
According to Tita, Petras and Greenbaum (2006)<ref>Tita, G., T. Petras, and R. Greenbaum (2006): Crime and Residential Choice: A Neighborhood Level Analysis of the Impact of Crime on Housing Prices. ''Journal of Quantitative Criminology'' Vol 22, No 4, Pp 299-317.</ref> “crime serves as an important catalyst for change in the socio-economic composition of communities. The effect crime has on the local property value is one of those catalyst effects. The question whether crime rates affect housing prices has been a popular subject of research over the last decades. However, although most empirical studies confirm that there is a negative impact of crime on housing prices<ref>See, e.g.: Pope & Pope (2012): Crime and property values: Evidence from the 1990s crime drop; Ihlanfeldt, K & T. Mayock (2009) "Crime and Housing Prices"; Gibbons, S. (2004): The Costs of urban property crime; or Linden, L and J. Rockoff (2008) "Estimates of the Impact of Crime Risk on Property Values from Megan’s Laws".</ref>, there is still no real consensus on the extent of this impact. The availability and quality of crime statistics (e.g, how should one incorporate non-recorded crime?), dealing with changes over time, the [[Crime displacement|displacement effect]], and the fact that the housing prices are determined by a complex set of factors and not just crime, are the most important reasons of this lack of consensus.
  +
−
Another effect of crime is that residents become less committed to their communities, causing the ‘social fibre’ of the community to be weakened. An example of the loss of social capital is that residents of neighbourhoods with a criminal reputation are judged to be associated with criminal activities, leading (amongst others) to stigmas that, for example, prevent those people from finding jobs<ref>UNODC and World Bank (2007). ''Crime, Violence, and Development: Trends, Costs, and Policy Options in the Caribbean''. Report No. 37820.</ref>.
 +
Another effect of crime is that residents become less committed to their communities, causing the ‘social fibre’ of the community to be weakened. An example of the loss of social capital is that residents of neighbourhoods with a criminal reputation are judged to be associated with criminal activities, leading (amongst others) to stigmas that, for example, prevent those people from finding jobs<ref>UNODC and World Bank (2007): Crime, Violence, and Development: Trends, Costs, and Policy Options in the Caribbean. Report No. 37820.</ref>.
   
 
Further examples of secondary economic effects of crime:
  
Further examples of secondary economic effects of crime:
−
* The carbon cost of crime</ref> Criminologist Ken Pease, has revealed the significance of crime on English and Welsh CO² output; an estimated total of 11.6 million tonnes - that's 2% of the UKs' total CO² emissions. See: Ken Pease (2009). The Carbon Cost of Crime and Its Implications. http://www.securedbydesign.com/professionals/pdfs/The-Carbon-Cost-of-Crime.pdf
 +
* The carbon cost of crime<ref> Criminologist Ken Pease, has revealed the significance of crime on English and Welsh CO² output; an estimated total of 11.6 million tonnes - that's 2% of the UKs' total CO² emissions. See: Ken Pease (2009). The Carbon Cost of Crime and Its Implications. http://www.securedbydesign.com/professionals/pdfs/The-Carbon-Cost-of-Crime.pdf</ref>.
−
* The opportunity costs of Police, Rescue, and Fire Departments
 +
* The opportunity costs of police, rescue, and fire departments.
 
* Moving costs of residents who want to escape from crime levels in "bad" neighbourhoods.<ref>http://www.aboutproperty.co.uk/uk-property/2007/3/5/crime-and-bad-neighbours-top-reasons-for-movi in Pease, K & M. Gill (2011) Home security and place design: some evidence and its policy implications, p.27)</ref>
  
* Moving costs of residents who want to escape from crime levels in "bad" neighbourhoods.<ref>http://www.aboutproperty.co.uk/uk-property/2007/3/5/crime-and-bad-neighbours-top-reasons-for-movi in Pease, K & M. Gill (2011) Home security and place design: some evidence and its policy implications, p.27)</ref>
  +
  +
==Methodological issues of economic research==
  +
As mentioned earlier above, most crime and economic research studies have to deal with several "information gaps" and some methodological issues and [[Limits of economic analysis|limitations]]. First of all, there are issues with crime statistics since not all crime is recorded or is differently categorised across different police regions. In addition, not only actual crime, but also the fear of crime (the perceived risk of crime) should be included in analysis. Many studies report incomplete or unreliable data concerning the cost of mental health issues after crime, the exact reimbursement of victims by insurance agencies, costs of "white collar" crime, costs of "victimless" crimes such as illegal gambling, illicit drug crimes, prostitution, etc.<ref>Shapiro, E. (1999): Cost of Crime, A Review of the Research Studies.</ref> On top of that, it is very difficult to quantify subjective costs like pain and suffering or to determine the "willingness to pay" (WTP)<ref>The willingness to pay "is the maximum amount a person would be willing to pay, sacrifice or exchange in order to receive a good or to avoid something undesired, such as pollution" or crime (Source Wikipedia,Online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willingness_to_pay)</ref>.
   
 
== Related subjects ==
  
== Related subjects ==
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*[[Economic]]
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This subject is closely related to:
  
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* [[belongs to::Economic impact of security threats|The economic impact of security threats]]
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* [[Economic impact]]
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* [[is synonymous to::Economic effects of terrorism|Economic impact of terrorism]]
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**[[Economic impact of urban planning
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**[[Economic impact of security threats|The economic impact of security threats]]
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***[[Economic effects of terrorism|Economic impact of terrorism]]
  +
**[[Economic impact of security measures]]
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**[[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|Economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour]]
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*[[Economic output]]
  +
*[[Economic tools]]
   
 
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Latest revision as of 18:43, 10 January 2018

Crime imposes huge economic effects on European societies. These economic effects of crime are, in essence, a category of economic impact.

Description

Crime not only leads to material and immaterial costs for those who have become victimised, but crime also forces local and national authorities to spend billions on the prevention of crime and the detection, prosecution and punishment of criminals. For the Netherlands, for example, the costs of crime are estimated to be 20.2 billion euro in 2005[1], approximately 4.1 percent of the GDP. The British Home office researchers Brand and Price (2000)[2] estimate the costs of crime to be between £35 and £60 billion per year for England and Wales.

The identification and the estimation of the costs of crime have received broad attention in economic literature and research, but the economic effect(s) and impact of crime on society is still an underexposed field of interest. One important reason of this lack of studies is that it is very difficult to quantify the costs of crime with the help of economic tools, and especially the benefits since they are in most of the cases non-economic, e.g. health benefits, the benefits of living in a safe area, etc. Moreover, while economic analysis (such as social cost-benefit analysis) is common in many contexts, the results depend largely on the used methodologies, including the underlying assumptions and measured effects.[3]. Nevertheless, the fact remains that there is an economic impact related to crime (in both a direct and indirect way).

Crime is a major part of every urban society, but it is not always as relevant for urban planners (e.g. cyber crime). In order to help the urban planner decide when the costs of crime should be considered, the Securipedia pages on urban objects do not just address the economic function of urban objects, but also the economic dimension of the more specific security threats.

Types of costs and economic effects of crime

Economists use various definitions and terminology for categorising the economic impact of crime. The two main categories (used in Securipedia) are the primary and secondary economic impact of crime, also referred to as direct and indirect economic effects[4].

This relationship is illustrated below in the clickable map:

CrimePrimary economic impactSecondary economic impactEconomic impactEconomic impact crime v2.jpg
About this image

Primary economic impact of crime

In general, economists use two types of methods to further categorise the (primary) costs of crime[2]. The first way is by defining the subject who bears the effects (victims, potential victims, society etc.). From an economic point of view, criminal offences can be aimed against:

  • individuals/households
  • the commercial sector/companies[5]
  • the public sector/society

A second approach of categorising, is by breaking down the costs in relation to individual incidents (Davidson, 1999[6]). This way, the costs of crime are categorised as:

  1. in anticipation of crime: mainly costs of precaution measures to avoid crime such as locks, alarm prevention programs and surveillance.
  2. as a consequence of crime: for instance, loss of property, medical and health care costs, victim support etc.
  3. in response to crime: costs considering police, prosecution, court proceedings, sanctions etc.

Secondary economic impact of crime

Crime not only leads to financial or physical damage and prevention costs, but also indirectly influences the local/regional and national economy of a country (the so-called secondary economic impact). According to Detotto and Otranto (2010)[7],“crime acts like a tax on the entire economy: it discourages domestic and foreign direct investments[8]. On a macro-economic level crime influences:

Graffiti
  • economic growth;
  • income;
  • labour force participation;
  • income spent on security measures; and
  • reallocation of resources creating uncertainty and inefficiency.

On a more local and regional level, economists define the following types of impact:

  • business impact (crime reduces competitiveness of companies and investments)
  • tourism impact
  • impact on quality of life/social capital
  • impact on property value

According to Tita, Petras and Greenbaum (2006)[9] “crime serves as an important catalyst for change in the socio-economic composition of communities. The effect crime has on the local property value is one of those catalyst effects. The question whether crime rates affect housing prices has been a popular subject of research over the last decades. However, although most empirical studies confirm that there is a negative impact of crime on housing prices[10], there is still no real consensus on the extent of this impact. The availability and quality of crime statistics (e.g, how should one incorporate non-recorded crime?), dealing with changes over time, the displacement effect, and the fact that the housing prices are determined by a complex set of factors and not just crime, are the most important reasons of this lack of consensus.

Another effect of crime is that residents become less committed to their communities, causing the ‘social fibre’ of the community to be weakened. An example of the loss of social capital is that residents of neighbourhoods with a criminal reputation are judged to be associated with criminal activities, leading (amongst others) to stigmas that, for example, prevent those people from finding jobs[11].

Further examples of secondary economic effects of crime:

  • The carbon cost of crime[12].
  • The opportunity costs of police, rescue, and fire departments.
  • Moving costs of residents who want to escape from crime levels in "bad" neighbourhoods.[13]

Methodological issues of economic research

As mentioned earlier above, most crime and economic research studies have to deal with several "information gaps" and some methodological issues and limitations. First of all, there are issues with crime statistics since not all crime is recorded or is differently categorised across different police regions. In addition, not only actual crime, but also the fear of crime (the perceived risk of crime) should be included in analysis. Many studies report incomplete or unreliable data concerning the cost of mental health issues after crime, the exact reimbursement of victims by insurance agencies, costs of "white collar" crime, costs of "victimless" crimes such as illegal gambling, illicit drug crimes, prostitution, etc.[14] On top of that, it is very difficult to quantify subjective costs like pain and suffering or to determine the "willingness to pay" (WTP)[15].

Related subjects

Footnotes and references

  1. ↑ SEO (2007): De kosten van criminaliteit [The cost of crime]. Publication Number: 971.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 Brand, S. and R. Price (2000): The economic and social costs of crime. Home Office Research Study 217.
  3. ↑ For example: How does one economically quantify the reputation of local police with regards to enforcing safety?
  4. ↑ Primary economic impact (or direct effects) are generally defined as the initial, immediate economic output generated by a specific cause (in this case a criminal offence). Secondary economic impact (or indirect effects) are generated each time a subsequent transaction is made, for example, the impact of crime on the real estate value in the neighbourhood.
  5. ↑ Business companies have to deal with crime, ranging from shoplifting and vandalism to piracy and counterfeiting. These crimes are committed by employees (theft, fraud, money laundering) and by outsiders (shoplifting, vandalism, etc.
  6. ↑ Davidson, N. (1999): Costing Burglary Reduction. In Brand, S. and R. Price (2000): The economic and social costs of crime. Home Office Research Study 217.
  7. ↑ Detotto,C. and E. Otranto (2010):Does crime affect Economic growth? KYKLOS, Vol.63–August 2010-No.3, 330-345.
  8. ↑ Foreign direct investment (FDI) is a direct investment by a business or enterprise in a foreign economy. The motives of FDI are diverse, for example, to reduce export costs (less transport and export tariffs) or to take advantage of local labour forces and know-how.
  9. ↑ Tita, G., T. Petras, and R. Greenbaum (2006): Crime and Residential Choice: A Neighborhood Level Analysis of the Impact of Crime on Housing Prices. Journal of Quantitative Criminology Vol 22, No 4, Pp 299-317.
  10. ↑ See, e.g.: Pope & Pope (2012): Crime and property values: Evidence from the 1990s crime drop; Ihlanfeldt, K & T. Mayock (2009) "Crime and Housing Prices"; Gibbons, S. (2004): The Costs of urban property crime; or Linden, L and J. Rockoff (2008) "Estimates of the Impact of Crime Risk on Property Values from Megan’s Laws".
  11. ↑ UNODC and World Bank (2007): Crime, Violence, and Development: Trends, Costs, and Policy Options in the Caribbean. Report No. 37820.
  12. ↑ Criminologist Ken Pease, has revealed the significance of crime on English and Welsh CO² output; an estimated total of 11.6 million tonnes - that's 2% of the UKs' total CO² emissions. See: Ken Pease (2009). The Carbon Cost of Crime and Its Implications. http://www.securedbydesign.com/professionals/pdfs/The-Carbon-Cost-of-Crime.pdf
  13. ↑ http://www.aboutproperty.co.uk/uk-property/2007/3/5/crime-and-bad-neighbours-top-reasons-for-movi in Pease, K & M. Gill (2011) Home security and place design: some evidence and its policy implications, p.27)
  14. ↑ Shapiro, E. (1999): Cost of Crime, A Review of the Research Studies.
  15. ↑ The willingness to pay "is the maximum amount a person would be willing to pay, sacrifice or exchange in order to receive a good or to avoid something undesired, such as pollution" or crime (Source Wikipedia,Online: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Willingness_to_pay)
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