Terrorism

{Vivian + Puck: let op referenties gaan nu niet mee!}

“The premeditated use or threat of use of extra-normal violence or brutality by subnational groups to obtain a political, religious or ideological objective through intimidation of a huge audience, usually not directly involved with the policy making that the terrorists seek to influence”¹. Terroristic acts are often carried out by radicalized individuals (lone actor terrorists) or terrorist cells (groups and/or networks).

Acts

Impact

Lone Actor Terrorists. Lone actors do not operate within a group, in the role of a steady member of a large terrorist cell or of an organization. The inspiration of a lone actor terrorist, also frequently described as ‘lone wolves’, frequently comes from publications of like-minded individuals through online and offline contact. The explosive amount of violence, that is often used by lone actor terrorists, frequently overshadows their ideology and becomes the ideology itself. A significant difference between jihadist and right-wing lone actors lies in their psychopathology.

Terrorist cells

Modus Operandi

Mainly in 1990-2000, jihadi terrorists worked in groups and planned bombings with certain types of explosives and/or hijackings. The most impactful terrorist attack took place on 9/11 in 2001, where terrorist cell Al-Qaeda, led by the Saudi multimiljonair Osama Bin Laden, hijacked two passenger flights and flew into the twin towers in Manhattan. From that point on, security measures increased all around the globe, resulting in a decrease in attacks carried out by groups. After 2001, Jihadi terrorists mostly carried out an attack alone, using a broad arsenal of weapons (crude bombs, knives, axes, guns), in name of a terrorist cell. The vast majority of terrorist cells in Europe have been involved in at least one individual with foreign fighter experience, and they usually functioned as entrepreneurs. These so-called self-financed terrorist cells are becoming a trend within jihadistic terrorism².

Motives

Jihadi terrorism

Between 1990-2000s jihadi terrorism in Europa was characterized by random mass casualty attacks on transportation. In the late 2000s more common to target Jews and satire artists that offended the prophet Muhammed. Attack types have also evolved in the past years.

Right wing extremist terrorism

Right-wing lone actors had significantly committed more violent offenses in the past and had used more firearms that bladed instruments during their terrorist attack. Overall, jihadist and right-wing lone actor terrorists show more similarities than differences³.

Warning behaviors and distal characteristics⁴

(letterlijk geciteerd)

1. Pathway warning behavior is research, planning, preparation, or implementation of an attack.
2. Fixation warning behavior is an indication of pathological preoccupation with a person or a cause, accompanied by a deterioration in social and occupational functioning.
3. Identification warning behavior indicates a psychological desire to be a pseudocommando, have a warrior mentality and to closely associate with weapons or other military or law enforcement paraphernalia, identify with previous attackers of assassins or to identify oneself as an agent to advance a particular cause or belief system.
4. Noval Agression behavior is an act of violence that appears unrelated to any targeted violence pathway and is committed for the first time. It is often a test of one’s capability to carry out an act of violence.
5. Energy burst warning behavior is an increase in the frequency or variety of any noted activities related to the target. Even if the activity itself is relatively innocuous. It takes place usually within hours, days or weeks before the attack.
6. Leakage warning behavior is the communication to a third party of an intent to do harm to a target through an attack, such as posting online videos or sharing a manuscript online.
7. Last Resort warning behavior is evidence of a “violent action imperative” and “time imperative”. It is often a signal of desperation and distress.
8. Directly communicated threat warning behavior is the communication of a direct threat to the target or law enforcement beforehand.

{Link met pagina safety en security, link met crime, link met security issues --> daarnaast link naar PRoTECT maken, we zien PRoTECT als voorbeeld}