Measure type: Sensors

Sensors could be used for detection, identification, localisation or tracking.

The following chart includes various Sensor solutions that can be implemented as event driven-measures to mediate the risk of a high-impact crime (such as a terrorist attack) at an event in a designated area.

The chart includes various columns:

In the first column, under 'Tech description', technological solutions are listed.

The next column indicates which 'Threat types' can be mitigated with these technological solutions:

1. Fire arms attack - small calibre pistol or semi/full-automatic rifle;
2. Sharp object attack - knifes, machete, other sharp and blunt objects;
3. Vehicle attack - use of vehicle as a weapon by ramming large crowds;
4. IED (explosives) - left/concealed in objects or goods (based on home-made or commercial explosives);
5. PBIED (explosives) - explosives concealed on a person (suicide or carrier);
6. UAVIED (explosives) - explosives delivered by a remote-controlled airborne device;
7. VBIED (explosives) - explosives concealed inside a vehicle (or its cargo);
8. Chemical attack - threat object concealed in goods or carried items (e.g. canister or UAV dispensed);
9. Biological attack - threat object concealed in goods or carried items (e.g. canister or UAV dispensed);
10. Radiological attack - threat object concealed in goods or carried items (e.g. canister or UAV dispensed).

The 'Threat phase' column states in which phase of the attack the technological solution has the most effect:

1. Initial Target Identification (before the attack);
2. Operational Planning (before the attack);
3. Pre-Attack Preparation (before the attack);
4. Execution (during the attack);
5. Post-Attack/Escape (after the attack).

Finally, the 'Tech use' column states the appertaining security function of the technological solution:

1. Alert - used for alerting public (e.g. sirens, texting service);
2. Surveil - used for situational awareness (e.g. cameras, social media tools);
3. Respond - used for responding to an attack (e.g. security personnel, non-lethal weapons);
4. Protect - used to protect assets (people, buildings, infrastructure);
5. Detect - used for detecting a weapon or weapon use (e.g. entry scanning equipment);
6. Overcome - used for overcoming a sudden vulnerability (e.g. extra concertina wire);
7. Improvise - created on the spot from available means (e.g. use police vehicle as a road block);
8. Restrict - used for restricting public access (e.g. safety barriers);
9. Adapt - used for changing circumstances (e.g. moving assets to a safer location);
10. Other.

Tech description	Threat type	Threat phase	Tech use	Tech criteria	Products/suppliers
Weapon detector (DEXTER)	Fire arms attack	Pre-attack	Surveil / detect / protect	Performance (detection rate)	n/a
Explosive detector (DEXTER)	PBIED	Pre-attack	Surveil / detect / protect	Performance (detection rate)	n/a
Automatic vehicle behaviour and threat detection (SASSSISLAN)	Vehicle Attack	Pre-attack	Surveil / protect	Performance (detection rate)	n/a
Automatic person behaviour and threat detection (SASSSISLAN)	Sharp object attack / PBIED	Pre-attack	Surveil / protect	Performance (detection rate)	n/a
Automatic aggression detection	Sharp object attack	Pre-attack / execution	Surveil / protect	Performance (detection rate)	n/a
Person re-identification to avoid next attack (DEXTER)	PBIED	Post-attack / Pre-attack (next)	Surveil / detect / protect	Performance (detection rate)	n/a
Automatic crowd behaviour and threat detection (SASSSISLAN)	Sharp object attack	Pre-attack / execution	Surveil / protect	Performance (detection rate)	n/a
mmw-portals (≈30-300 GHz)	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	anomaly detection, slow (person by person)	L-3 Provision, Rohde & Schwarz QPS200, Smiths Echo, Nuctech
mmw walk-through (≈30-300 GHz)	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	anomaly detection (several 100 persons/h)	Evolv Edge, APSTEC HSR, R&S (Camero) Easycheck
radar/microwave (≈3-30 GHz)	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	anomaly detection large distance	Rapiscan Counterbomber
THz/IR cameras	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	anomaly detection difficult image interpretation	THz - no COTS equipment on the market IR – ELBIT IR camera
X-ray backscatter persons	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	forbidden for use in public in Europe – ionising radiation	Rapiscan (discontinued product)
X-ray transmission persons	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	forbidden for use in public in Europe – ionising radiation	Smiths Detection B-scan
X-ray transmission belt systems	Fire arms, sharp object, IED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	checkpoint necessary, slow (bag by bag), ATR possible for explosives, guns and knives	many commercial systems available
X-ray backscatter for cars	Fire arms & VBIED attack	Execution	Detect	covert: needs close proximity to car (drive by), image difficult to interpret, Mobile Portal solution possible, checkpoint situation, driver has to leave the car	Rapiscan (many products)
Explosive vapour Detection – High Volume Sampling (HVS)	IED, PBIED & VBIED attack (potentially chemical attack)	Execution	Detect	not all explosives can be detected, detection rate depends on circumstances (eg temperature), needs time (1-30 minutes), sampling device is portable, detection device is large and expensive, detector usually mass spectrometer based technology	SEADM, Karsa
Explosive vapour Detection – Direct Sampling	IED, PBIED & VBIED attack (potentially chemical attack)	Execution	Detect	Less sensitive than HVS, lower DR, handheld, limited use, many technology sub categories	Rapiscan Mobile trace, Fido
Explosive Trace Particle detection – contact	IED, PBIED & VBIED attack (potentially chemical attack)	Execution	Detect	contact with object necessary (swab), very sensitive equipment mostly Ion Mobility Spectrometry (IMS) based, but also other technologies success depends on skill operator	Bruker, Nuctech, Rapiscan, Smiths Detection, L-3 and others
Explosive Trace Particle detection – non-contact	IED, PBIED & VBIED attack (potentially chemical attack)	Execution	Detect	Mostly Raman-effect based technology, use of laser, eye-safety is an issue when use in public. Proximity measurements (<2 cm) are mature, longer distance (up to several meters) less mature, also bulk detection possible up to 40 m for some explosives (low TRL), line of sight necessary	Thermo Fisher (True/First defender), ALAKAI, ENEA (prototype, low TRL)
Walk Through Metal Detection	Fire arms, sharp object & vehicle attack	Execution	Detect	checkpoint necessary, only works if threat contains metal	Ceia, Rapiscan, Garret
Hand held Metal Detector	Fire arms, sharp object & vehicle attack	Execution	Detect	depends on skill operator, only works if threat contains metal	Ceia, Rapiscan, Garret
Explosive Detection Dogs	IED, PBIED & VBIED attack (potentially chemical attack)	Execution	Detect	versatile use, performance varies from dog to dog and in time, expensive	mostly police, military, though commercial parties do exist (PMT, Twickelerveld)
Pat down	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	often used as alarm resolution, invasive, time consuming, depends on skill of the screener and cooperation of the subject	Screeners can be supplied by private security companies (G4S, Securitas)
Visual inspection of bags, cars, etc.	Fire arms, sharp object, PBIED, chemical, biological & radiological attack	Execution	Detect	often used as alarm resolution, invasive, time consuming, depends on skill of the screener and cooperation of the subject	Screeners can be supplied by private security companies (G4S, Securitas)
Detection of deviant behaviour offline (for example, security questioning, distinguishing psychiatric patient from terrorist (Rapid Observation of Psychological Disorders (ROPD) tool))	all	Execution	Surveil	Performance (detection rate)	Rapid Observation of Psychological Disorders (ROPD) tool: translation of a psychopathology diagnostic tool for healthcare professionals into manageable questions with everyday terms for safety professionals (TNO)
Use of animals as sensor (for example, emotions, stress level, use of substances, presence of explosives, and establishing identity)	all	Execution	Surveil / respond / detect / restrict	Readiness /  Performance	n/a
Risk assessment of individuals on the spot (i.e., stress assessment)	all	Execution	Respond / detect	Performance (accuracy)	Rapid Resilience Scan: estimates the effects of behavioral measures on a target. The RRS is being developed for measuring stress and resilience in a criminal context (by TNO)
Vulnerability assessment of individuals before the fact (for example, Multi-Agency Vulnerability Assessment Support Tool (MAVAST))	all	Initial target identification	Surveil	Performance (accuracy, at face value as data are largely absent)	Multi-Agency Vulnerability Assessment Support Tool (MAVAST): supports multi-agency teams (for example, police, justice, municipality, social work) in identifying the level of vulnerability of an individual to radicalise in a violent way (by TNO for H2020 Pericles)
Automatic sprinkler system	IED, PBIED, UAVIED & VBIED attack	Execution	Respond / protect / overcome	Performance	n/a
Drones with sensor	all	Initial target identification / execution / post-attack/escape	Surveil / respond / detect	Performance (detection rate, accuracy)	n/a

Other measure types are:

• ICT
• Actuators
• Physical measures
• Methods