Difference between revisions of "Measure type: Screening"

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'''Screening''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by testing all traffic entering and/or exiting a certain area or object on criteria to determine their right to do so.
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[[Category:Measure]]'''Screening''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by testing all traffic entering and/or exiting a certain area or object on criteria to determine their right to do so.
   
 
== Description ==
 
== Description ==
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== Effectiveness ==
 
== Effectiveness ==
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:
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Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are{{#tip-info:these measures are not or less appropriate or effective against <span style="color:silver">greyed-out</span> security issues}}:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;
 
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;
 
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs
 
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs
 
|-
 
|-
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}
+
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#tip-info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#tip-info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#tip-info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]{{#tip-info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}
 
|-
 
|-
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}
+
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#tip-info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#tip-info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#tip-info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}
 
|-
 
|-
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || ||
+
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#tip-info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#tip-info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || ||
 
|-
 
|-
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || ||
+
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#tip-info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#tip-info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || ||
 
|-
 
|-
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || ||
+
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#tip-info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#tip-info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || ||
 
|-
 
|-
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || ||
+
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#tip-info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}
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=== Urban planning considerations ===
 
=== Urban planning considerations ===
While many forms of screening are not suitable for use in public space due to the potential disruption and time delays it could cause, other forms of natural screening can be promoted through urban design techniques. For example, a clear demarcation of public and private space, through the use of different boundary or surface treatments or the use of fencing, should provide for strong territorial definition. When clear ownership of space is evident, it makes it easier for residents to ‘screen’ for people who do not have legitimate reason to be there.
+
While many forms of screening are not suitable for use in public space due to the potential disruption and time delays, other forms of natural screening can be promoted through urban design techniques. For example, a clear demarcation of public and private space, through the use of different boundary or surface treatments or the use of fencing, should provide for strong territorial definition. When clear ownership of space is evident, it makes it easier for residents to ‘screen’ for people who do not have legitimate reason to be there.
  +
  +
Screening measures are also applicable for assisting in directing traffic flows, where a separation between traffic modes is desired (such as a road, bridge or tunnel toll facility with specific lanes for specific vehicle types). In addition to clear demarcation, physical screening can be achieved through narrowed laneways or height barriers to prevent certain forms of traffic through.
   
 
=== Safety/security considerations ===
 
=== Safety/security considerations ===
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=== Social considerations ===
 
=== Social considerations ===
  +
From a social point of view, screening, as a security measure, raises ambiguous feelings. On the one hand people may recognize the necessity for screening in order to mitigate security treads, on the other hand it may lead to a decrease of the probability of being satisfied as, for instance, an airline passenger or a visitor of an urban object. Especially airport security screening could lead to extra waiting time, queues (the biggest annoyance at airports) and impractical or even embarrassing situations, ranging from taking oft the shoes, belts etc to full body scans.
Screening as a measure to increase resilience should consider that security mainly refers to the people and society, and that technical solutions are not effective without the acceptance and participation of the public. This acceptance is, among other things, rooted in [[security culture]]s.
 
   
  +
The acceptance of security screening measures strongly depends on whether or not the rationale behind the screening is clear and the screening occurs in an efficient manner. For instance, because transit passengers do not understand why a security check is again necessary, they become irritated; Why not trust each other airports?
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in planning for measures such as sceening can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of screening should include tests of usability of respective resilience-enhanced built infrastructure in relevant social contexts. An example of a practical method to use is the [[Safety_audit]], which focuses on context-specific solutions.
 
   
 
=== Economic considerations ===
 
=== Economic considerations ===
 
[[File:CISF Security Check Point.jpg|thumb|300px|CISF Security Check Point]]
Screening measures (see the case example below) intend to deter crime and terrorism, mitigating the negative [[Economic impact of security threats| socio-economic impact of crime]] and terrorism. There are, however, costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>. These costs contain first of all [[Primary economic impact|direct investments]] in equipment, training and operational costs by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic cost/impact]]. Secondly, the mitigation effort generates various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] for example in terms of delays, inconveniences, and changes in the business environment.
 
  +
The economic benefits of screening measures reach beyond the reduction and prevention of material and immaterial damage since security threats also have a negative influence on local/regional investments and allocations of resources, the so-called [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic impact of crime|secondary economic impact (of crime)]]. Crime prone areas, for example, are subjected to a high mobility of residents, vandalism, empty lots and buildings, businesses with extreme security measures, etc. In addition, one could consider the opportunity cost of police and other public services (like health care services for victim support), and the long term health cost and decrease in income of victims and their due to the traumatising impact of assaults.
[[File:CISF Security Check Point.jpg|thumb|CISF Security Check Point]]
 
  +
Whether these primary and secondary costs are making sense from an economic point of view depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):
 
  +
Security measures like screening, nevertheless, are not possible without investments in terms of time and money. The [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Direct (primary) costs of security|direct cost]] of screening measures are primarily characterised by the investment in equipment, training and operational cost by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities. Secondly, screening measures generate various types of [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Indirect (secondary) costs of security|indirect economic effects]] like longer delivery times and disruption of supply chains and delivery systems. In addition, screening measures can create an unwelcome environment, which, in return, creates negative indirect economic effects as a result of a reduction of the perceived security and quality of the environment (in the same way as actual crime itself). As a final example of negative indirect economic effects, screening measures can cause negative indirect effects for commercial venues like businesses and commercial stores. These negative effects are caused by a decrease in accessibility, reducing the amount of customers and increasing the cost of distribution. The case example below illustrates the benefits and cost of screening measures:
# Are the envisioned security measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?
 
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the security measures and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]?
 
   
 
''Case example: A cost-benefit analysis of screening at checkpoints:''
 
''Case example: A cost-benefit analysis of screening at checkpoints:''
{{quote| In economic terms, checkpoints help to apprehend persons in violation of laws and confiscate contraband (such as smuggling goods). The benefits of checkpoints can be quantified in terms of the number of apprehensions per patrol agent. Some detailed studies suggest that checkpoints have a positive benefit-cost ratio. Take for example a study on the community sobriety checkpoint program estimated benefits from the National Highway Traffic safety Administration (NHTSA). This report states that for every $1 spent on sobriety checkpoint program the community saves more than $6, including $1.30 of insurer costs(Miller et al., 1998).<ref>Miller, T., M. Galbraith, and B Lawrence. (1998). Costs and Benefits of a Community Sobriety Checkpoint Program. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 59(4), 462-468. In: Rose, A. & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security, p.10</ref>. Nevertheless, screening of persons also generates indirect costs that are generally hard to measure. Think of effects such as delays (for both private persons as commercial transportation companies), inconvenience for travelers, and the quality of life for local residents. On top of that, checkpoints may possibly also raise concerns about the overall safety of the region, influencing economic activities such as tourism and local business customer ship.}}
+
{{quote| In economic terms, checkpoints help to apprehend persons in violation of laws and confiscate contraband (such as smuggling goods). The benefits of checkpoints can be quantified in terms of the number of apprehensions per patrol agent. Some detailed studies suggest that checkpoints have a positive benefit-cost ratio. Take for example a study on the community sobriety checkpoint program estimated benefits from the National Highway Traffic safety Administration (NHTSA). This report states that for every $1 spent on sobriety checkpoint program the community saves more than $6, including $1.30 of insurer costs(Miller et al., 1998).<ref>Miller, T., M. Galbraith, and B Lawrence. (1998): Costs and Benefits of a Community Sobriety Checkpoint Program. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 59(4), 462-468. In: Rose, A. & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security, p.10</ref>. Nevertheless, screening of persons also generates indirect cost that are generally hard to measure. Think of effects such as delays (for both private persons as commercial transportation companies), inconvenience for travelers, and the quality of life for local residents. On top of that, checkpoints may possibly also raise concerns about the overall safety of the region, influencing economic activities such as tourism and local business customer ship.}}
   
  +
In order to decide if screening as a specific security measure makes sense from an economic point of view, the urban planner should not just map both the cost and benefits of screening measures for the particular case (both direct and indirect), but also wonder if there exist potential alternative security measures that have a better value for money ([[Social cost-benefit analysis|benefit-cost ratio]])<ref>See also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment.</ref>. On top of that, one should always consider how stakeholders (citizens, suppliers, customers, employees, etc.) are affected by the considered measures, and to which extend. Will customers, for example, refrain from a visit to a certain shopping mall due to the severe screening measures on the streets? And how will potential criminals/terrorists react? Will they easily find ways to avoid the foreseen security measures, or will the screening measures force them to look for other targets ([[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|the economics of criminal/terrorist behaviour]])? [[Economic tools]] such as the [[social cost-benefit analysis]] (first question) and [[Economic Impact Study|economic impact study]] (second question) can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security.
[[Economic tools]] such as the [[social cost-benefit analysis]] (first question) and [[Economic Impact Study|economic impact study]] (second question) can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).
 
   
 
=== Mobility considerations ===
 
=== Mobility considerations ===
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=== Ethics considerations ===
 
=== Ethics considerations ===
Ethics aspects of screening depend on the differences in the security and rights traditions of different countries. For example, prevention, management and mitigation strategies such as screening may be seen to involve restriction of fundamental rights (e.g., movement; privacy). As a general guideline, the screening measure should aim to test for ''only'' the access/exit criteria and avoid to gather any other information. This principal ensures a minimal breach to the personal privacy.
+
[[Ethics aspects]] of screening depend on the differences in the security and rights traditions of different countries. Prevention management and mitigation strategies may be perceived to restrict fundamental rights. As a general guideline, the screening measure should aim to test for ''only'' the access/exit criteria and avoid gathering any other information. This guideline ensures a minimal breach to the personal privacy.
   
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.
+
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.
   
 
=== Legal considerations ===
 
=== Legal considerations ===
  +
Legal considerations when considering screening measures are:
Main legal considerations include data protection; identification of people and how this could infringe personal rights; legal permission or restriction (such as anti-discrimination) to apply criteria; legal aspects of mass data storage; data protection; and legal admissibility of forcing people to identify themselves.
 
  +
* [[legal aspects#Development management standards|Development management standards]] - Measures for screening may impose on standards concerning accessibility
 
  +
* [[legal aspects#Privacy|Privacy]] - Identification of people is a potential privacy sensitive activity
VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.
 
   
 
{{references}}
 
{{references}}

Latest revision as of 16:03, 9 October 2020

Screening is the measure of reducing risk by testing all traffic entering and/or exiting a certain area or object on criteria to determine their right to do so.

Description

Requiring registration at the receptionist desk before access is granted can be an effective form of screening

Instead of seeking to exclude potential perpetrators (as in access control), this set of tactics seeks to increase the likelihood of detecting persons who are not in conformity with entry requirements (entry screening) or exit requirements (such as detecting the attempted removal of objects that should not be removed from protected areas).

Examples

Screening measures can take a wide range of form, depending on the access/exit criteria they intend to test:

  • Closed-circuit TV (screening for for example hidden objects)
  • Body searches (testing for hidden objects)
  • Metal detectors (testing for metal objects)
  • Vibration detectors or motion detectors (testing for entry at forbidden times or locations)
  • Library book tags (testing for theft)
  • Requirement show identification
  • Electronic badges for trusted personnel
    Electronic identity badges can provide a quick and automated means of screening
  • Vignette on the car window (testing for paid road tax)
  • Camera control (with license plate recognition), e.g. for parking garages or for congestion charging such as in London[1]

Effectiveness

Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:

Financial gain Boredom or compulsive behaviour Impulse Conflict in beliefs
Burglary Physical assault Destruction by riots Mass killing
Ram-raiding Sexual assault Destruction of property by fanatics
Pickpocketing Vandalism
Robbery Graffiti
Raid Antisocial Behaviour
Vehicle theft

Considerations

General considerations

For screening to work in general, a detection method needs to exist that is able to, and effective in, testing the access or exit criteria. The test needs to be designed in conformity to the mobility requirements of the access or exit, that is: it should allow the required flows.

For screening to be deployed in an urban environment, the measure has to be in concordance with the environment it is deployed in. Some types of screening would disrupt traffic flows to an extent that would cause problems: an identity check in a metro station would, because of the high flows of traffic, be very problematic. A body search would normally not be allowed on account of it being very invasive to the privacy of a person, but in certain circumstances - especially when specific indications exist a person might form a significant threat - it might be allowed.

Urban planning considerations

While many forms of screening are not suitable for use in public space due to the potential disruption and time delays, other forms of natural screening can be promoted through urban design techniques. For example, a clear demarcation of public and private space, through the use of different boundary or surface treatments or the use of fencing, should provide for strong territorial definition. When clear ownership of space is evident, it makes it easier for residents to ‘screen’ for people who do not have legitimate reason to be there.

Screening measures are also applicable for assisting in directing traffic flows, where a separation between traffic modes is desired (such as a road, bridge or tunnel toll facility with specific lanes for specific vehicle types). In addition to clear demarcation, physical screening can be achieved through narrowed laneways or height barriers to prevent certain forms of traffic through.

Safety/security considerations

Intensive forms of screening can raise the prominence of an object, which can raise the attractiveness of the object for fanatics.

Social considerations

From a social point of view, screening, as a security measure, raises ambiguous feelings. On the one hand people may recognize the necessity for screening in order to mitigate security treads, on the other hand it may lead to a decrease of the probability of being satisfied as, for instance, an airline passenger or a visitor of an urban object. Especially airport security screening could lead to extra waiting time, queues (the biggest annoyance at airports) and impractical or even embarrassing situations, ranging from taking oft the shoes, belts etc to full body scans.

The acceptance of security screening measures strongly depends on whether or not the rationale behind the screening is clear and the screening occurs in an efficient manner. For instance, because transit passengers do not understand why a security check is again necessary, they become irritated; Why not trust each other airports?

Economic considerations

CISF Security Check Point

The economic benefits of screening measures reach beyond the reduction and prevention of material and immaterial damage since security threats also have a negative influence on local/regional investments and allocations of resources, the so-called secondary economic impact (of crime). Crime prone areas, for example, are subjected to a high mobility of residents, vandalism, empty lots and buildings, businesses with extreme security measures, etc. In addition, one could consider the opportunity cost of police and other public services (like health care services for victim support), and the long term health cost and decrease in income of victims and their due to the traumatising impact of assaults.

Security measures like screening, nevertheless, are not possible without investments in terms of time and money. The direct cost of screening measures are primarily characterised by the investment in equipment, training and operational cost by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities. Secondly, screening measures generate various types of indirect economic effects like longer delivery times and disruption of supply chains and delivery systems. In addition, screening measures can create an unwelcome environment, which, in return, creates negative indirect economic effects as a result of a reduction of the perceived security and quality of the environment (in the same way as actual crime itself). As a final example of negative indirect economic effects, screening measures can cause negative indirect effects for commercial venues like businesses and commercial stores. These negative effects are caused by a decrease in accessibility, reducing the amount of customers and increasing the cost of distribution. The case example below illustrates the benefits and cost of screening measures:

Case example: A cost-benefit analysis of screening at checkpoints:

In economic terms, checkpoints help to apprehend persons in violation of laws and confiscate contraband (such as smuggling goods). The benefits of checkpoints can be quantified in terms of the number of apprehensions per patrol agent. Some detailed studies suggest that checkpoints have a positive benefit-cost ratio. Take for example a study on the community sobriety checkpoint program estimated benefits from the National Highway Traffic safety Administration (NHTSA). This report states that for every $1 spent on sobriety checkpoint program the community saves more than $6, including $1.30 of insurer costs(Miller et al., 1998).[1]. Nevertheless, screening of persons also generates indirect cost that are generally hard to measure. Think of effects such as delays (for both private persons as commercial transportation companies), inconvenience for travelers, and the quality of life for local residents. On top of that, checkpoints may possibly also raise concerns about the overall safety of the region, influencing economic activities such as tourism and local business customer ship.

In order to decide if screening as a specific security measure makes sense from an economic point of view, the urban planner should not just map both the cost and benefits of screening measures for the particular case (both direct and indirect), but also wonder if there exist potential alternative security measures that have a better value for money (benefit-cost ratio)[2]. On top of that, one should always consider how stakeholders (citizens, suppliers, customers, employees, etc.) are affected by the considered measures, and to which extend. Will customers, for example, refrain from a visit to a certain shopping mall due to the severe screening measures on the streets? And how will potential criminals/terrorists react? Will they easily find ways to avoid the foreseen security measures, or will the screening measures force them to look for other targets (the economics of criminal/terrorist behaviour)? Economic tools such as the social cost-benefit analysis (first question) and economic impact study (second question) can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security.

Mobility considerations

Mobility considerations for screening are that the screening should be performed quickly as not to disrupt the traffic flow. As given above, examples of screening in a mobility environment are a vignette on the car window (road tax), camera control (with license plate recognition), barriers (e.g. to control a private parking or area), toll booths or security/entrance checks at airports.

Ethics considerations

Ethics aspects of screening depend on the differences in the security and rights traditions of different countries. Prevention management and mitigation strategies may be perceived to restrict fundamental rights. As a general guideline, the screening measure should aim to test for only the access/exit criteria and avoid gathering any other information. This guideline ensures a minimal breach to the personal privacy.

In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented list of methods to determine ethics aspects in relevant urban planning.

Legal considerations

Legal considerations when considering screening measures are:

Footnotes and references

  1. Miller, T., M. Galbraith, and B Lawrence. (1998): Costs and Benefits of a Community Sobriety Checkpoint Program. Journal of Studies on Alcohol and Drugs, 59(4), 462-468. In: Rose, A. & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security, p.10
  2. See also the flow chart of an economic assessment.