Difference between revisions of "Measure type: Intervention force"

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[[Category:Economic]]
 
 
[[Category:Ethics]]
 
[[Category:Ethics]]
 
[[Category:Measure]]
 
[[Category:Measure]]
[[File:Festnahme_4_(ex3179)_sml.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Arrest of a protester in Hamburg]]Establishing a '''intervention force''' is the [[measure]] of having adequate resources (first responders) to react to emergencies in order to minimise impact and restore a normal situation as soon as possible.
+
[[File:Festnahme_4_(ex3179)_sml.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Arrest of a protester in Hamburg]]Establishing an '''intervention force''' is the [[measure]] of having adequate resources (first responders) to react to emergencies in order to minimise impact and restore a normal situation as soon as possible.
   
 
== Description ==
 
== Description ==
An intervention force is the last link in the reaction chain '''detection'''-'''perception'''-'''interpretation'''-'''formulating action'''-'''acting''' of the [[comprehensive approach]]. The essence of deploying an intervention force lies in intervening in an observed incident. This is done by way of first responders, who by their action minimize impact, restore the situation to normalcy and in general also take actions to facilitate the prosecution, if needed.
+
An intervention force is the last link in the reaction chain ''detection-perception-interpretation-formulating'' ''action-acting'' of the [[comprehensive approach]]. The essence of deploying an intervention force lies in intervening in an observed incident. This is done by way of first responders, who by their action minimize impact, restore the situation to normalcy and in general also take actions to facilitate the prosecution, if needed.
   
 
== Examples ==
 
== Examples ==
Intervention forces can be officially appointed, ad-hoc, public or private. Examples of forms of intervention force are:
+
[[image:G4S_väktare_med_hund.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|private security officer]]Intervention forces can be officially appointed, ad-hoc, public or private. Examples of forms of intervention force are:
 
* Police force
 
* Police force
 
* Army
 
* Army
Line 15: Line 14:
   
 
== Effectiveness ==
 
== Effectiveness ==
The effectiveness of a intervention force against crime lies in two effects:
+
The effectiveness of a intervention force against crime lies in three factors:
 
* the mitigating effect of authority present
 
* the mitigating effect of authority present
 
* the direct actions undertaken by the intervention force to mitigate the effects of an incident
 
* the direct actions undertaken by the intervention force to mitigate the effects of an incident
 
* make contributions to the prosecution of crime (gathering evidence and leads and arresting suspects)
 
* make contributions to the prosecution of crime (gathering evidence and leads and arresting suspects)
   
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:
+
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner are {{#tip-info:these measures are not or less appropriate or effective against <span style="color:silver">greyed-out</span> security issues}}:
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"
 
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;
 
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;
Line 27: Line 26:
 
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs
 
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs
 
|-
 
|-
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots| Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}
+
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#tip-info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#tip-info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots| Destruction by riots]]{{#tip-info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]{{#tip-info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}
 
|-
 
|-
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}
+
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#tip-info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#tip-info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#tip-info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}
 
|-
 
|-
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || ||
+
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#tip-info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#tip-info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || ||
 
|-
 
|-
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || ||
+
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#tip-info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#tip-info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || ||
 
|-
 
|-
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || ||
+
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#tip-info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#tip-info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || ||
 
|-
 
|-
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || ||
+
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#tip-info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || ||
 
|-
 
|-
 
|}
 
|}
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=== Urban planning considerations ===
 
=== Urban planning considerations ===
  +
Urban planning processes should take into consideration measures to support the needs of intervention forces (such as first responders) in responding to developing emergencies and crisis situations in urban spaces. Cooperation and dialogue should be facilitated and supported between intervention forces and urban planners to identify problem areas in advance so that any challenges intervention forces may face in attempting to efficiently and effectively carry out their duties are mitigated. An example of which may be an instance where there are no easily accessible water supplies (such as fire hydrants) available for fire extinguishing, or where target hardening measures have inadvertently inconvenienced the police from intercepting and pursuing a criminal.
Traditionally policing has been structured around an incident based approach to crime control, which is generally more reactive in nature. Dialogue should be facilitated and supported between crime control agents and urban development actors, particularly urban planners so that appropriate interventions can be employed to tackle crime from the design stage of developments and public space.
 
   
 
=== Safety/security considerations ===
 
=== Safety/security considerations ===
 
The duration and impact of incidents can be minimized by applying proper [[Incident management|incident management]], which requires among others a good cooperation between the [[Incident management#Roles and responsibilities|agencies responsible for incident management]]. Incident management is used to reduce the time to detect and verify an incident occurrence; implement the appropriate response; and safely clear the incident, while managing the affected flow until full capacity is restored<ref>Traffic Incident Management Handbook, Prepared for: Federal Highway Administration,Office of Travel Management. Prepared by: PB Farradyne, November 2000</ref>.
 
The duration and impact of incidents can be minimized by applying proper [[Incident management|incident management]], which requires among others a good cooperation between the [[Incident management#Roles and responsibilities|agencies responsible for incident management]]. Incident management is used to reduce the time to detect and verify an incident occurrence; implement the appropriate response; and safely clear the incident, while managing the affected flow until full capacity is restored<ref>Traffic Incident Management Handbook, Prepared for: Federal Highway Administration,Office of Travel Management. Prepared by: PB Farradyne, November 2000</ref>.
   
The publicity resulting from a large-scale deployment of intervention force can deteriorate the status of a neighbourhood, which can attract more crime.
+
The publicity resulting from a large-scale deployment of intervention force can deteriorate the status of a neighbourhood, which may attract more crime in the short term.
   
 
The use of violence in interventions can cause damage and injuries.
 
The use of violence in interventions can cause damage and injuries.
Line 63: Line 62:
   
 
=== Social considerations ===
 
=== Social considerations ===
  +
The deployment of intervention forces can lead to feelings of [[victimisation]] on the side of the affected public. Therefore, an important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of the measure to citizens' felt security needs. A measure, such as intervention force, will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens' self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience as well as their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. This can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV.
The deployment of intervention forces can lead to feelings of [[victimization]] on the side of the affected public.
 
   
 
=== Economic considerations ===
 
=== Economic considerations ===
Intervention forces are in most cases the responsibility of public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact]]. Although the costs of police services vary from country to country and include both [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Direct (primary) costs of security|direct]] and [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Indirect (secondary) costs of security|indirect]] costs, intervention forces are above all characterised by the permanent investments in training, equipment and salaries of the team members. Hence, intervention forces require more long-term investments than, for example, target hardening measures (i.e. toughened glass or concrete walls) or remote surveillance with the help of cameras<ref>Although also in the case of CCTV there are permanent costs due to e.g. the permanent monitoring of cameras</ref>.
+
The mitigating effect of intervention forces prevents material and immaterial [[Economic effects of crime#Primary economic impact of crime|costs]] for those who have become victimised, and on top of that prevents [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic impact of crime|secondary]] economic damage to local and regional economies (in terms of e.g. a decrease in tourism or investments by companies). Intervention forces are a widely used measure to fight crime and terrorism, and in most cases the primary responsibility of public authorities. These benefits however, are not possible without cost: Being the first line of defence, public authorities annually spend billions on policing. Intervention forces are primarily characterised by the permanent investments in training, equipment and salaries of its team members. Hence, intervention forces require more long-term investments than, for example, [[Measure: Target hardening|target hardening]] measures (i.e. toughened glass or concrete walls) or remote [[Measure: surveillance|surveillance]] with the help of cameras<ref>Although also in the case of CCTV there are permanent cost due to e.g. the permanent monitoring of cameras.</ref>. There exist, nevertheless, relatively few rigorous studies by economists, political scientists, and criminal justice researchers on the impact of policing, and specifically the function as an intervention force (see the case example below).
   
  +
''Case example: The cost-effectiveness of policing''
Being the first line of defence, public authorities annually spend billions on policing. There exist, nevertheless, relatively few rigorous studies by economists, political scientists, and criminal justice researchers on the impact of policing, and specifically the function as a intervention force. According to Levitt (2004)<ref>Levitt, S.D.(2004). Understanding why Crime fell in the 1990s; Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that do not. ''Journal of Economic Perspectives''--Volume 18, Number 1-pages 163-190.</ref>, until the start of this decade, most studies found an insignificant or negative correlation between the number of police forces and criminal offences. According to Levitt, however, this is due to the fact that these studies failed to account for the fact that policing does not only influences crime, but also the amount of crime influences the amount of policing. Correcting for this effect, more recent studies conclude that more police is associated with reductions in crime, and Levitt (2004)<ref>Ibid</ref> concludes that, based on a crude approximation, the effectiveness of policing from a [[Social cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit]] perspective is “attractive”, but should not be the sole focus to reduce crime.
+
{{quote|According to Levitt (2004)<ref name =Levitt>Levitt, S.D.(2004): Understanding why Crime fell in the 1990s; Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that do not. Journal of Economic Perspectives--Volume 18, Number 1-pages 163-190.</ref>, until the start of this decade, most studies found an insignificant or negative correlation between the number of police forces and criminal offences. According to Levitt, however, this is due to the fact that these studies failed to account for the fact that policing does not only influence crime, but also the amount of crime influences the amount of policing. Correcting for this effect, more recent studies conclude that more police is associated with reductions in crime, and Levitt (2004)<ref name =Levitt></ref> concludes that, based on a crude approximation, the effectiveness of policing from a [[Social cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit]] perspective is “attractive”, but should not be the sole focus to reduce crime.}}
  +
  +
The conclusion of Levitt (2004) in the case example above is that even though policing is an attractive measure from an economic point of view, it should not be the sole focus to reduce crime. This point illustrates very clearly that in order to make a well-considered decision about investment in intervention forces, one should not just limit the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit analysis]] to this specific type of measure, but also to other types of measures (including preventive security measures).
  +
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to reach this well-considered decision (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).
   
 
=== Mobility considerations ===
 
=== Mobility considerations ===
Line 78: Line 81:
   
 
=== Ethics considerations ===
 
=== Ethics considerations ===
  +
This measure does not have immediate relations to planning for built infrastructure and its [[Ethics aspects|ethics aspects]]. However, build infrastructure may be designed with considerations in mind such as how accessible it will be for intervention forces. This relates to the more general aspect of [[Environmental design|environmental design]].
  +
  +
Use of uniformed force and its legitimacy/acceptability can greatly vary across cultures and sub-cultures. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.
   
 
=== Legal considerations ===
 
=== Legal considerations ===
  +
Legal considerations when considering intervention force measures are:
Major legal considerations relate to general legal constraints per nation, provisioons of police law, restrictions on use of military in homeland security, etc. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.
 
  +
* [[legal aspects#Public participation|Public participation]] - Depending on the way the forces are deployed, public participation could be positively or negatively influenced
   
 
{{references}}
 
{{references}}

Latest revision as of 16:08, 9 October 2020

Arrest of a protester in Hamburg

Establishing an intervention force is the measure of having adequate resources (first responders) to react to emergencies in order to minimise impact and restore a normal situation as soon as possible.

Description

An intervention force is the last link in the reaction chain detection-perception-interpretation-formulating action-acting of the comprehensive approach. The essence of deploying an intervention force lies in intervening in an observed incident. This is done by way of first responders, who by their action minimize impact, restore the situation to normalcy and in general also take actions to facilitate the prosecution, if needed.

Examples

private security officer

Intervention forces can be officially appointed, ad-hoc, public or private. Examples of forms of intervention force are:

  • Police force
  • Army
  • Private security companies
  • Neighbourhood watches/other citizens initiatives

Effectiveness

The effectiveness of a intervention force against crime lies in three factors:

  • the mitigating effect of authority present
  • the direct actions undertaken by the intervention force to mitigate the effects of an incident
  • make contributions to the prosecution of crime (gathering evidence and leads and arresting suspects)

Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner are :

Security issues
Financial gain Boredom or compulsive behaviour Impulse Conflict in beliefs
Burglary Physical assault Destruction by riots Mass killing
Ram-raiding Sexual assault Destruction of property by fanatics
Pickpocketing Vandalism
Robbery Graffiti
Raid Antisocial Behaviour
Vehicle theft

Considerations

General considerations

  • For a intervention force to be effective, they need to be well aware of the situation; what parties are involved, in what way, what are their motives, goals, backgrounds and means, what has happened and where are the parties located.
  • In order to get this awareness, it is essential that the reaction chain is unbroken. As often the links in the reaction chain are managed by different people or organisations, the communication in this chain is of vital essence.
  • A timely arrival at the location of the incident is essential to keep the number of options to resolve the situation as open as possible; an incident can escalate very quickly, making gentler interventions impractical or impossible.

The extent to which a intervention force can operate effectively in an urban context is dependent of:

Urban planning considerations

Urban planning processes should take into consideration measures to support the needs of intervention forces (such as first responders) in responding to developing emergencies and crisis situations in urban spaces. Cooperation and dialogue should be facilitated and supported between intervention forces and urban planners to identify problem areas in advance so that any challenges intervention forces may face in attempting to efficiently and effectively carry out their duties are mitigated. An example of which may be an instance where there are no easily accessible water supplies (such as fire hydrants) available for fire extinguishing, or where target hardening measures have inadvertently inconvenienced the police from intercepting and pursuing a criminal.

Safety/security considerations

The duration and impact of incidents can be minimized by applying proper incident management, which requires among others a good cooperation between the agencies responsible for incident management. Incident management is used to reduce the time to detect and verify an incident occurrence; implement the appropriate response; and safely clear the incident, while managing the affected flow until full capacity is restored[1].

The publicity resulting from a large-scale deployment of intervention force can deteriorate the status of a neighbourhood, which may attract more crime in the short term.

The use of violence in interventions can cause damage and injuries.

Intervention forces can be highly flexible and therefore also perform as a means to provide safety. For instance, security officers might be knowledgeable in providing first aid.

Social considerations

The deployment of intervention forces can lead to feelings of victimisation on the side of the affected public. Therefore, an important social aspect is the responsiveness of the measure to citizens' felt security needs. A measure, such as intervention force, will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens' self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience as well as their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. This can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of citizen participation as compiled by VITRUV.

Economic considerations

The mitigating effect of intervention forces prevents material and immaterial costs for those who have become victimised, and on top of that prevents secondary economic damage to local and regional economies (in terms of e.g. a decrease in tourism or investments by companies). Intervention forces are a widely used measure to fight crime and terrorism, and in most cases the primary responsibility of public authorities. These benefits however, are not possible without cost: Being the first line of defence, public authorities annually spend billions on policing. Intervention forces are primarily characterised by the permanent investments in training, equipment and salaries of its team members. Hence, intervention forces require more long-term investments than, for example, target hardening measures (i.e. toughened glass or concrete walls) or remote surveillance with the help of cameras[2]. There exist, nevertheless, relatively few rigorous studies by economists, political scientists, and criminal justice researchers on the impact of policing, and specifically the function as an intervention force (see the case example below).

Case example: The cost-effectiveness of policing

According to Levitt (2004)[3], until the start of this decade, most studies found an insignificant or negative correlation between the number of police forces and criminal offences. According to Levitt, however, this is due to the fact that these studies failed to account for the fact that policing does not only influence crime, but also the amount of crime influences the amount of policing. Correcting for this effect, more recent studies conclude that more police is associated with reductions in crime, and Levitt (2004)[3] concludes that, based on a crude approximation, the effectiveness of policing from a cost-benefit perspective is “attractive”, but should not be the sole focus to reduce crime.

The conclusion of Levitt (2004) in the case example above is that even though policing is an attractive measure from an economic point of view, it should not be the sole focus to reduce crime. This point illustrates very clearly that in order to make a well-considered decision about investment in intervention forces, one should not just limit the cost-benefit analysis to this specific type of measure, but also to other types of measures (including preventive security measures). Economic tools can help decision makers to reach this well-considered decision (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).

Mobility considerations

The deployment of a intervention force is a relatively expensive measure, as it needs to be maintained at all times in order to be deployable when needed.

In the mobility field, many efforts have been put into the development of adequate incident management procedures; in case of incidents, the aim is to get as quickly as possible the required emergency services (incl. police) at the place of the incident and clearing the road as fast as possible, in order to minimize the mobility effect for the other traffic.

Generally, accessibility of risk sensitive locations should be guaranteed or made as good as possible in order to offer easy access for intervention forces in case of emergencies or other incidents.

Ethics considerations

This measure does not have immediate relations to planning for built infrastructure and its ethics aspects. However, build infrastructure may be designed with considerations in mind such as how accessible it will be for intervention forces. This relates to the more general aspect of environmental design.

Use of uniformed force and its legitimacy/acceptability can greatly vary across cultures and sub-cultures. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented list of methods to determine ethics aspects in relevant urban planning.

Legal considerations

Legal considerations when considering intervention force measures are:

  • Public participation - Depending on the way the forces are deployed, public participation could be positively or negatively influenced

Footnotes and references

  1. Traffic Incident Management Handbook, Prepared for: Federal Highway Administration,Office of Travel Management. Prepared by: PB Farradyne, November 2000
  2. Although also in the case of CCTV there are permanent cost due to e.g. the permanent monitoring of cameras.
  3. 3.0 3.1 Levitt, S.D.(2004): Understanding why Crime fell in the 1990s; Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that do not. Journal of Economic Perspectives--Volume 18, Number 1-pages 163-190.