Security issue: Robbery - Revision history

Albert at 11:01, 18 January 2016

2016-01-18T11:01:56Z

Hans: /* Social impact */

2013-12-10T10:58:13Z

Social impact

Hans: /* Social impact */

2013-12-10T10:54:19Z

Social impact

Hans: /* Social impact */

2013-12-10T10:53:11Z

Social impact

Albert: /* Contributing circumstances */

2013-12-05T12:59:19Z

Contributing circumstances

John P: /* Economic impact */

2013-11-15T15:42:02Z

Economic impact

John P: /* Economic impact */

2013-11-15T15:41:30Z

Economic impact

John P: /* Economic impact */

2013-11-15T15:39:53Z

Economic impact

John P: /* Economic impact */

2013-11-15T15:38:23Z

Economic impact

Olav: /* Social impact */

2013-07-29T10:47:47Z

Social impact

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 [[Category:Threat]][[Category:Safety]]
-'''Robbery''' is the [[crime]] of taking or attempting to take something of value by force, threat of force, or by instilling fear in the victim. It is used here exclusively for acts committed to individual persons. For the forceful theft from commercial venues, see [[security issue: Raid|raid]].
+[[Image:SnatchThieves003.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Snatch theft, depicted here as done from a motor vehicle]]'''Robbery''' is the [[crime]] of taking or attempting to take something of value by force, threat of force, or by instilling fear in the victim. It is used here exclusively for acts committed to individual persons. For the forceful theft from commercial venues, see [[security issue: Raid|raid]].
 == Description ==
-[[Image:SnatchThieves003.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Snatch theft, depicted here as done from a motor vehicle]]In the context of urban planning, robbery is most relevant if performed in the public space. This form of robbery, called 'street robbery' has the following five characteristics<ref name=streetrobbery>[http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_robbery/ Monk Khadija M., Heinonen Justin A. and Eck John E., ''Street Robbery'', Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Guide No. 59, April 2010]</ref>:
+In the context of urban planning, robbery is most relevant if performed in the public space. This form of robbery, called 'street robbery' has the following five characteristics<ref name=streetrobbery>[http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_robbery/ Monk Khadija M., Heinonen Justin A. and Eck John E., ''Street Robbery'', Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Guide No. 59, April 2010]</ref>:
 * the offender targets a victim;
 * the victim is a stranger to the offender;

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 ===Social impact===
 Robbery in general has a profound impact on victims, it can lead to psychological distress, including fear, anger and depression<ref>http://irv.sagepub.com/content/14/2/175</ref>. Of course different kinds of robbery and the level of violence applied have a different impact. A majority of victims found street robbery to be a very frightening experience, and, as a result, fear of crime increased and many victims suffered serious psychological distress. While the effects had moderated nine months after the crime, the robberies were still having a serious and enduring effect on victims' fear, social behaviour and psychological health, particularly for women and those who possessed a less hardy personality<ref>The Behavioural, Emotional and Psychological Effects of Street Robbery on Victims, Julie-Anne Gale and Timothy Coupe, *University of Birmingham, UK</ref>. Besides the effect of serious psychological distress, robbery may lead to physical harm, (personal) financial loss, a decrease in perceived security, an increase of feelings of personal vulnerability.
+A social effect could be that victims develop avoidance behavior, for example to avoid crowded situations and just go out the door during the day time and to only visiting trusted persons. Robbery can also lead to more positive social effects. It can lead to more social cohesion and awareness within a community ranging from community watch to social control over strangers and misfits. Also social media is used to mitigate the likelihood of becoming a victim of robbery. For instance in the Netherlands the Police uses social media to warn the public against pickpockets “there are pickpockets active in this area, be extra aware of your personal belongings”. In the Netherlands apps are being developed with names like “improve your neighborhood”. Think of reporting defects of furniture and lighting, pollution, vandalism, unsafe traffic situations, but also nuisances such as dog poo. We then send, the municipality or district council keep you informed of progress. Another Dutch example is that the police has launched a service which gives citizens access to when and where it is broken in their neighborhood. With showing details of burglaries in the district hopes to persuade to take against burglaries, i.e. object hardening.
 ===Economic impact===

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 == Impacts ==
 ===Social impact===
-Robbery in general has a profound impact on victims, it can lead to psychological distress, including fear, anger and depression. Of course different kinds of robbery and the level of violence applied have a different impact. A majority of victims found street robbery to be a very frightening experience, and, as a result, fear of crime increased and many victims suffered serious psychological distress. While the effects had moderated nine months after the crime, the robberies were still having a serious and enduring effect on victims' fear, social behaviour and psychological health, particularly for women and those who possessed a less hardy personality<ref>The Behavioural, Emotional and Psychological Effects of Street Robbery on Victims, Julie-Anne Gale and Timothy Coupe, *University of Birmingham, UK</ref>. Besides the effect of serious psychological distress, robbery may lead to physical harm, (personal) financial loss, a decrease in perceived security, an increase of feelings of personal vulnerability.
+Robbery in general has a profound impact on victims, it can lead to psychological distress, including fear, anger and depression<ref>http://irv.sagepub.com/content/14/2/175</ref>. Of course different kinds of robbery and the level of violence applied have a different impact. A majority of victims found street robbery to be a very frightening experience, and, as a result, fear of crime increased and many victims suffered serious psychological distress. While the effects had moderated nine months after the crime, the robberies were still having a serious and enduring effect on victims' fear, social behaviour and psychological health, particularly for women and those who possessed a less hardy personality<ref>The Behavioural, Emotional and Psychological Effects of Street Robbery on Victims, Julie-Anne Gale and Timothy Coupe, *University of Birmingham, UK</ref>. Besides the effect of serious psychological distress, robbery may lead to physical harm, (personal) financial loss, a decrease in perceived security, an increase of feelings of personal vulnerability.
-Robbery may have one or more of the following effects on the victim:
-* Psychological distress, including fear, anger and depression<ref>http://irv.sagepub.com/content/14/2/175</ref>
-* Social effects
-* Physical harm
-* (Personal) financial loss
-* Decrease in perceived security
-* Increased personal vulnerability
 ===Economic impact===

@@ Line 43: / Line 43: @@
 == Impacts ==
 ===Social impact===
+Robbery in general has a profound impact on victims, it can lead to psychological distress, including fear, anger and depression. Of course different kinds of robbery and the level of violence applied have a different impact. A majority of victims found street robbery to be a very frightening experience, and, as a result, fear of crime increased and many victims suffered serious psychological distress. While the effects had moderated nine months after the crime, the robberies were still having a serious and enduring effect on victims' fear, social behaviour and psychological health, particularly for women and those who possessed a less hardy personality<ref>The Behavioural, Emotional and Psychological Effects of Street Robbery on Victims, Julie-Anne Gale and Timothy Coupe, *University of Birmingham, UK</ref>. Besides the effect of serious psychological distress, robbery may lead to physical harm, (personal) financial loss, a decrease in perceived security, an increase of feelings of personal vulnerability.
 Robbery may have one or more of the following effects on the victim:
 * Psychological distress, including fear, anger and depression<ref>http://irv.sagepub.com/content/14/2/175</ref>

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 | Long reaction times or inadequate action of intervention force. || Decreases likelihood of apprehension || Untimely or inappropriate reactions to violence lead to a perception of little control, which will increase perceived risk for the public and decrease perceived risk for the perpetrators.
 |-
-| High levels of robbery in the vicinity. || Increases likelihood of targeting. || The distance to known places where offenders live matters. On average, robbers travel 2,1 km to commit their crimes<ref>Beauregarda Eric T, Proulxb Jean, D., Rossmoc Kim A., ''Spatial patterns of sex offenders: Theoretical, empirical, and practical issues'', Aggression and Violent Behavior 10 (2005) 579–603</ref>, and the chance of a neighbourhood to be chosen reduces with every km distance from the offender's home.
+| High levels of robbery in the vicinity. || Increases likelihood of targeting. || The distance to known places where offenders live matters. On average, robbers travel 3,4 km to commit their crimes<ref>Beauregarda Eric T, Proulxb Jean, D., Rossmoc Kim A., ''Spatial patterns of sex offenders: Theoretical, empirical, and practical issues'', Aggression and Violent Behavior 10 (2005) 579–603</ref>, and the chance of a neighbourhood to be chosen reduces with every km distance from the offender's home.
 |-
 | High levels of unemployment || Increases likelihood of targetting || High levels of unemployment are correlated with higher levels of property crime <ref>Kepple NJ, Freisthler B., ''Exploring the ecological association between crime and medical marijuana dispensaries.'',J Stud Alcohol Drugs. 2012 Jul;73(4):523-30</ref>.

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 Robberies lead to socio-economic [[Economic effects of crime|costs]] that reach beyond the financial value of the property stolen. The [[Economic effects of crime#Primary economic impact of crime|direct]] costs of robberies can be for about 65% attributed to the result of the physical and emotional impact on direct victims, health costs, value of property stolen, and lost productivity (the costs as a consequence of crime)<ref name="soccost">Home Office, Research, Development and Statistics Directorate (2005): The economic and social costs of crime against individuals and households 2003/04.</ref>. The rest can be attributed to costs in response to crime by public authorities (criminal justice system)<ref name="soccost"/>. Robberies occur less frequent than for example burglaries or acts of vandalism, but the average cost per event (± £7,500) is twice the amount compared to an average burglary)<ref name="soccost"/>. This is mostly the result of higher physical and emotional damage, loss of output and costs for the criminal justice system.
-Robberies can also have a lasting [[Secondary economic impact|indirect]] impact on society, the [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic impact of crime|secondary economic impact of crime]]. On a more local and regional level, frequent robberies can have a negative impact on local business, social life, tourism and housing prices. Empirical research by the Federal Reserve Bank of Ney York, for example, quantified the relationship between a reduction in crime such as robberies and homicides and the change in the prices of nearby residential real estate, concluding that intensive policing had a substantial positive effect on the property values and the inequality among residential prices<ref>Frischtak, C. and B.R. Mandel (2012): Crime, House Prices, and Inequality: The Effect of UPPs in Rio. Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Staff Report no.542. http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr542.pdf</ref>.
+Robberies can also have a lasting [[Secondary economic impact|indirect]] impact on society, the [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic impact of crime|secondary economic impact of crime]]. On a more local and regional level, frequent robberies can have a negative impact on local business, social life, tourism and housing prices. Empirical research by the Federal Reserve Bank of New York, for example, quantified the relationship between a reduction in crime such as robberies and homicides and the change in the prices of nearby residential real estate, concluding that intensive policing had a substantial positive effect on the property values and the inequality among residential prices<ref>Frischtak, C. and B.R. Mandel (2012): Crime, House Prices, and Inequality: The Effect of UPPs in Rio. Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Staff Report no.542. http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr542.pdf</ref>.
-Robbers, especially street robbers "are notoriously difficult to deter"<ref name="tellermachines"/>."They require relatively small amounts of cash to justify their risk, they have a lot of crime opportunities, they want cash immediately, and street robbery does not require much skill or planning"<ref> Wright and Decker (1997)in: [http://www.popcenter.org/problems/robbery_atms/ M. Scott (2001): Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Guide No.8. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing.]</ref>. On top of that, robbers will adapt quickly to preventive security measures in accordance with the [[The economics of crime|economics of criminal behaviour]]. Taxi robbers, for example, sometimes use a female accomplice to order a taxi. With the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as a[[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] it is possible to overview the costs and future benefits of security measures in order to decide which types of measures are best suited for a specific urban planning situation.
+Robbers, especially street robbers "are notoriously difficult to deter"<ref name="tellermachines"/>."They require relatively small amounts of cash to justify their risk, they have a lot of crime opportunities, they want cash immediately, and street robbery does not require much skill or planning"<ref> Wright and Decker (1997)in: [http://www.popcenter.org/problems/robbery_atms/ M. Scott (2001): Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Guide No.8. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing.]</ref>. On top of that, robbers will adapt quickly to preventive security measures in accordance with the [[The economics of crime|economics of criminal behaviour]]. Taxi robbers, for example, sometimes use a female accomplice to order a taxi. With the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] it is possible to overview the costs and future benefits of security measures in order to decide which types of measures are best suited for a specific urban planning situation.
 ===Mobility impact===

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 ===Economic impact===
-Robberies lead to socio-economic [[Economic effects of crime|costs]] that reach beyond the financial value of the property stolen. The [[Primary economic impact|direct]] costs of robberies can be for about 65% attributed to the result of the physical and emotional impact on direct victims, health costs, value of property stolen, and lost productivity (the costs as a consequence of crime)<ref name="soccost">Home Office, Research, Development and Statistics Directorate (2005). The economic and social costs of crime against individuals and households 2003/04.</ref>. The rest can be attributed to costs in response to crime by public authorities (criminal justice system)<ref name="soccost"/>. Robberies occur less frequent than for example burglaries or acts of vandalism, but the average cost per event (± £7,500) is twice the amount compared to an average burglary)<ref name="soccost"/>. This is mostly the result of higher physical and emotional damage, loss of output and costs for the criminal justice system.
+Robberies lead to socio-economic [[Economic effects of crime|costs]] that reach beyond the financial value of the property stolen. The [[Primary economic impact|direct]] costs of robberies can be for about 65% attributed to the result of the physical and emotional impact on direct victims, health costs, value of property stolen, and lost productivity (the costs as a consequence of crime)<ref name="soccost">Home Office, Research, Development and Statistics Directorate (2005): The economic and social costs of crime against individuals and households 2003/04.</ref>. The rest can be attributed to costs in response to crime by public authorities (criminal justice system)<ref name="soccost"/>. Robberies occur less frequent than for example burglaries or acts of vandalism, but the average cost per event (± £7,500) is twice the amount compared to an average burglary)<ref name="soccost"/>. This is mostly the result of higher physical and emotional damage, loss of output and costs for the criminal justice system.
-Robberies can also have a lasting [[Secondary economic impact|indirect]] impact on society, the [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic impact of crime|secondary economic impact of crime]]. On a more local and regional level, frequent robberies can have a negative impact on local business, social life, tourism and housing prices. Empirical research by the Federal Reserve Bank of Ney York, for example, quantified the relationship between a reduction in crime such as robberies and homicides and the change in the prices of nearby residential real estate, concluding that intensive policing had a substantial positive effect on the property values and the inequality among residential prices<ref>Frischtak, C. and B.R. Mandel (2012). Crime, House Prices, and Inequality: The Effect of UPPs in Rio. Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Staff Report no.542. http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr542.pdf</ref>.
+Robberies can also have a lasting [[Secondary economic impact|indirect]] impact on society, the [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic impact of crime|secondary economic impact of crime]]. On a more local and regional level, frequent robberies can have a negative impact on local business, social life, tourism and housing prices. Empirical research by the Federal Reserve Bank of Ney York, for example, quantified the relationship between a reduction in crime such as robberies and homicides and the change in the prices of nearby residential real estate, concluding that intensive policing had a substantial positive effect on the property values and the inequality among residential prices<ref>Frischtak, C. and B.R. Mandel (2012): Crime, House Prices, and Inequality: The Effect of UPPs in Rio. Federal Reserve Bank of New York. Staff Report no.542. http://www.newyorkfed.org/research/staff_reports/sr542.pdf</ref>.
-Robbers, especially street robbers "are notoriously difficult to deter"<ref name="tellermachines"/>."They require relatively small amounts of cash to justify their risk, they have a lot of crime opportunities, they want cash immediately, and street robbery does not require much skill or planning"<ref> Wright and Decker (1997)in: [http://www.popcenter.org/problems/robbery_atms/ M. Scott (2001). Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Guide No.8. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing.]</ref>. On top of that, robbers will adapt quickly to preventive security measures in accordance with the [[The economics of crime|economics of criminal behaviour]]. Taxi robbers, for example, sometimes use a female accomplice to order a taxi.
+Robbers, especially street robbers "are notoriously difficult to deter"<ref name="tellermachines"/>."They require relatively small amounts of cash to justify their risk, they have a lot of crime opportunities, they want cash immediately, and street robbery does not require much skill or planning"<ref> Wright and Decker (1997)in: [http://www.popcenter.org/problems/robbery_atms/ M. Scott (2001): Robbery at Automated Teller Machines. Guide No.8. Center for Problem-Oriented Policing.]</ref>. On top of that, robbers will adapt quickly to preventive security measures in accordance with the [[The economics of crime|economics of criminal behaviour]]. Taxi robbers, for example, sometimes use a female accomplice to order a taxi.
 ===Mobility impact===