https://securipedia.eu/api.php?action=feedcontributions&user=Gerdien&feedformat=atomSecuripedia - User contributions [en]2024-03-29T14:07:35ZUser contributionsMediaWiki 1.34.0https://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Directing_traffic_flows&diff=13574Measure type: Directing traffic flows2013-12-05T10:40:46Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
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<div>[[Category:Mobility]][[Category:Measure]][[Category:Safety]]<br />
'''Directing flows of people''' is a form of a [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measure that can mitigate the [[likelihood]] of a security event (preventive direction of flows of people) or reduce the [[impact]] of a security event(reactive direction of flows of people).<br />
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== Description ==<br />
Directing traffic flows is a [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measure of directing the traffic in a preferred way. Whereas this usually is done from a traffic management perspective to improve throughput of a road network<ref>For example, when a certain route is congested, the traffic can be guided to an alternative route with a dynamic route information panel (DRIP). The measure is also applied to increase safety, such as for instance to prevent flows of traffic from colliding, manage crowds or to support [[Evacuation Management|evacuation management]] in case of emergencies.</ref>, it can also be applied to increase security. In this case, the measure is usually intended to separate potential offenders from locations or circumstances where they might do harm. Examples of direction of traffic flows for security reasons include building barriers for vehicles, to provide safe transportation to and from entertainment centres across high-risk areas, to ensure a car-free zone around a building as a protection against car bombs or to separate pedestrians from motorcycles to prevent [[robbery|snatch theft]]. As a measure to reduce the consequences of an incident, crowd control at large events or transportation [[hub]]s can prevent the outbreak of disorder or riots<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_control</ref><ref>[[Image:Evacuation modeling pedestrians.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|Evacuation modelling using the pedestrian simulation model STEPS.]] Pedestrian simulation can help model the flow of pedestrians. The modelling of the individual movement of pedestrians results in a description of macroscopic pedestrian flow and allows e.g. the evaluation of escape routes, the design of pedestrian facilities and the study of more theoretical questions. A typical example of a pedestrian simulation model is [http://www.mottmac.com/skillsandservices/software/stepssoftware/ STEPS]</ref>.<br />
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A traffic flow measure can be directed at all traffic, or only certain modes of transportation. For example, a water obstacle would be effective against all road transportation, a gravel pit would stop rolling vehicles, but not pedestrians, and an average fence would stop pedestrians, but not ramming vehicles.<br />
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==Examples==<br />
Examples of directing traffic flow measures are:<br />
===By physical route guidance===<br />
* Signposts[[Image:Corstorphine signpost.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Signpost indicating clear routes to popular destinations]]<br />
* Traffic signs<br />
* Route guidance with Dynamic Route Information Panels (DRIP)<br />
* Route guidance and traffic information provision via navigation systems<br />
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===By hard and soft [[barrier]]s blocking unwanted traffic flows===<br />
* Elevation to stop rolling vehicles or discourage pedestrians<br />
* Water or gravel barrier[[Image:Kantorengebouw Westraven in Utrecht.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Use of water as friendly barrier]]<br />
* Green barrier<br />
* [[Bollard]]s<br />
* Traffic slowing measures, such as speed ramps, discouraging rat running[[image:Rat run.svg|thumb|right|300px|Speed decreasing measures can decrease the appeal of shortcuts as rat-running routes.]]<br />
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=== By psychological barriers or route guidance ===<br />
* By indicating wanted pathways by lighting<br />
* By discouraging unwanted pathways by making them seem dead-end<br />
* By intentionally designing one route to be more attractive than another (for example intentionally making an alternative road look narrow and obscure for cars, or by planning popular attractions for tourists to be along a defined route)<br />
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=== By providing natural, direct routes ===<br />
* Designing pathways directly and obviously to main points of interest equipped with all required security features[[Image:Basingstoke station.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Basingstoke station featuring explicit, direct access routes]]<br />
* Increasing traffic flows in desired main through routes in a city by facilitating shorter travel times with green waves and thereby reducing traffic in less desired areas.<br />
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===By regulation===<br />
* One-way streets<br />
* Prohibited places<br />
* Restricted access (for, for example, certain kinds of traffic or at specific times)[[image:Noratrun.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Restricted acces: traffic sign prohibiting a right turn during rush hours]]<br />
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== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver"><br />
Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid|Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
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== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For measures on traffic flows to be effective, the measures should match the docility of the targeted traffic flows. For instance, an average fence can be very effective against the average pedestrian, but less effective against an motivated vandal and hardly effective at all against a fanatic terrorist. In an urban context, the realisation form of a measure should conform to the targeted public, threat level and surroundings: high, unfriendly walls will be inappropriate in a shopping area and low, open fences are inappropriate for high-risk objects.<br />
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=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Measures to direct traffic flows provide a useful mechanism for reducing the opportunity for criminal activity.<br />
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Where possible, access to vulnerable areas (such as residential estates) should be restricted to as few routes as possible and should be designed to serve the needs of the development rather than any through traffic. Unrestricted opportunities to access, familiarise, offend and escape should be avoided. However, the intent is to disallow unintended behaviour and not to inconvenience legitimate users. Some practical considerations in restriction of traffic flows in designs is given in the US document 'Site Security Design Guide'<ref>http://wbdg.org/ccb/GSAMAN/site_security_dg.pdf</ref>.<br />
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Consideration should be given toward the needs and separation between different traffic types, if applicable, such as pedestrian and motor traffic. Desired routes for each mode should be clearly delineated and natural surveillance should play a role in facilitating voluntary compliance of such rules.<br />
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However any measure to direct traffic flows must take accessibility into consideration, particularly for emergency vehicles and evacuations.<br />
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=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
When directing traffic flows, its impact on [[traffic safety]] should always be considered. Another safety aspect of limiting mobility is the issue of [[evacuation management]], as the ability to evacuate quickly in case of emergencies can be an important element in providing safety.<br />
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=== Social considerations ===<br />
The measure of directing traffic flows needs to consider general aspects of the [[designing out]] approach and its [[Designing_out#Critics|critics]]. Another important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. Measures such as directing traffic flows will only be responsive if they are based on identification of citizens' self-perceptions of vulnerabilities and security gaps. Aditionally, it must not be forgotten that resilience-enhancing measures are no substitute for continuously informing citizens' with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realisation of risks.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref><br />
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Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in security measures such as directing traffic flows can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of directing traffic flows should include usability tests in relevant social contexts. The [[Sociospatial_perspective|sociospatial perspective]] is an example of an approach to do so.<br />
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=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Transportation infrastructure is a crucial component of every economy as it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other. Roads, public transportation, hubs, etc., however, can also be (ab)used by criminals and terrorists for their activities, or be targeted themselves. Both result in negative [[Economic effects of crime|economic effects]] for society, ranging from [[Primary economic impact|direct]] material damage to [[Secondary economic impact|indirect]] economic effects as a result of a limitation of mobility (e.g. when transportation hubs are being damaged). Directing traffic flows (see the case example below) aims to prevent the occurrence of security threats and/or limit the negative effects of it (including the economic effects). Nevertheless, security measures do not just result in benefits, but also imply cost (the [[Economic effects of security measures|economic effects of security measures]]).<br />
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The above mentioned cost of traffic flow management measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Direct (primary) costs of security|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational cost (both temporary and permanent), such as the investment in bollards, traffic signs and water barriers. On top of that, traffic flow measures generate various types of [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Indirect (secondary) costs of security|indirect economic effects]] that will have an impact on the economy as a whole. The reason behind this is that, although managed traffic flows will result in a more robust mobility of goods and persons, one has to bear in mind that mobility (as a whole) will be limited as well. Traffic rules such as speed limits, for instance, aim to improve safety and the robustness of the road network, but at the same time increase travel time for road users (since they cannot drive as fast as wished for in all cases). Indirectly, this limited accessibility could lead to negative economic effects as a result of the less efficient transportation of goods, skills and persons. These negative impacts will reduce the functioning of the markets in the local economy, reduce the functioning of labour markets, and attribute to a decrease in scale and agglomeration advances (due to a decreased market size).<br />
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''Case example: Effectiveness of traffic management:''<br />
{{quote|"The application of horizontal deflections (e.g. bends and chicanes) that are enforced by VSBs [Vehicle Security Barriers] will limit hostile vehicle approach speed thus reducing the effectiveness of a penetrative vehicle impact. In turn, this can reduce the requirements and associated '''cost''' of countermeasures and provide opportunities to deploy discreetly integrated protection. Although effective for road-safety engineering purposes, traffic calming using vertical deflections (e.g. road humps) is not an effective security measure as it provides a negligible speed reduction against a determined vehicle-born attack."(CPNI, 2011)<ref>Centre for the Protection of National Infrastructure (2011): Integrated Security; A Public Realm Design Guide for Hostile Vehicle Mitigation.</ref>. Hence, VSBs are making more sense from an economic point of view than, for instance, traffic calming measures such as road bumps. The reason behind this is that VSBs do not just reduce the risk of a penetrative vehicle impact, but also reduce investments in other security measures and on top of that enables discreet protection (generating economic benefits for the local economy).}}<br />
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Whether or not traffic flow measures make sense from an economic point of view depends on many factors. Involved urban planners should start to ask themselves which security issue has to be resolved, and if traffic flow measures are the right instrument for this particular issue. In addition, the urban planner should research alternative measures that might be more effective (in terms of a better benefit-cost ratio), and involve the direct and indirect effects on stakeholders, including the criminals and terrorists that might alter their behaviour (in economic terms, [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|the economics of crime/terrorism]]). These steps are summarised in this step by step [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment. [[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
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=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
An essential aspect for effectively closing or discouraging pathways is that an alternative route should be clearly available.<br />
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A good road design should be such that most traffic chooses the routes as preferred by the road manager to accommodate the largest traffic flows, and not the less preferred routes such as small routes within city centres. For example, there should be clear access routes to larger ring roads and motorways with sufficient capacity leading out of urban districts.<br />
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Information about alternative routes can be given to the road users with a Dynamic Information Panel (DRIP). Usually a few alternative routes are given with their actual travel times. People are thus encouraged to choose the route with the lowest travel time, which helps to reduce congestion on the alternative route. See also [[Traffic management|traffic management]].<br />
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Traffic flows can also be directed by giving traffic information via navigation systems or smart phone applications. An example of a recent development with smart phone applications is an app for pedestrians during large events that indicates the crowdedness of certain areas, based on localization of other app users or blue tooth detection. This app was launched for the Dutch coronation event, though at the latest moment crowdedness indicator functionality was withdrawn out of fear that so much bandwidth would be used that emergency services couldn't communicate anymore. Another example is a mobile phone app <ref>http://www.tno.nl/content.cfm?context=overtno&content=nieuwsbericht&laag1=37&laag2=69&item_id=2012-03-22%2011:19:55.0&Taal=2</ref> that gives the user specific travel advice and, at the same time, provides information from the car or public transport to highways authorities and traffic managers. The app 'FileAlarm' is linked to the user’s smartphone agenda. In this way the app sees that you have to travel to an appointment, checks the route conditions at that moment and alerts the user when to depart. This also generates a lot of information about the travel patterns of people and thus helps the highways authorities to more specifically adjust capacity and provide individual or groups of travellers with customised travel advice. It also contains information on the number of available parking spaces and guides the drivers to a parking close to their destination. This prevents long waiting queues and chaos at the entrances of parking garages. Another way to do this is with Parking Guidance Information signs, showing the number of free parking spaces in several parking garages.<br />
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=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Directing traffic flows may only decrease risk to high-status buildings such as embassies. This can raise [[Ethics aspects|ethics aspects]] related to distributive justice since the measure can carry the risk of reifying uneven distribution of security in society: It may contribute to selective delivery of security, contributing to making only some groups of citizens more secure. Another aspect is the interaction between built infrastructures and human rights (e.g. rights to access and supply). This illustrates the need to provide norms and standards beyond frameworks for built infrastructure.<br />
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In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
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=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Main [[Legal aspects|legal]] considerations relevant to the measure of directing traffic flows relate to traffic lots and the admissible causes for investigatory stops.<ref>Ken Wallentine: Current Legal Issues in Traffic and Investigatory Stops. Paper presented at the 2009 Justice Court Spring Conference, http://www.kenwallentine.com/downloads/Current%20Legal%20Issues%20inTraffic%20and%20Investigatory%20Stops.pdf</ref> <br />
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VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning. <br />
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{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Removing_means&diff=13065Measure type: Removing means2013-08-20T09:59:50Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
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<div>[[Category:Measure]]Removing means is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by reducing the availability of tools or other means conductive to crime.<br />
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== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Mary Plantation Guest House Side Ladder.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A ladder can be an inviting tool for a burglar]]Many forms of crime require tools or materials: burglars use tools to force entry, vandals will use objects to destroy, graffiti artist require spray paint or markers. By making the access to these required tools more difficult, committing the crimes is made more difficult. <br />
<br />
This form of crime reduction is most prominently effective in situations where the required tools are available at or close to the crime location. Arson as a form of vandalism for instance, thrives on the presence of flammable goods and burglars can be greatly aided by the presence of a ladder. Making sure these goods are not present, or not accessible can therefore increase the effort needed to commit these crimes.<br />
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== Examples ==<br />
Some examples of removing (the access to) means, are:<br />
* Providing strict access control to debris-prone areas like construction/demolition sites <br />
* Placement of vandalism prone elements far from "hang-out" areas<br />
* Providing lockable sheds for storage of ladders and tools<br />
* Providing an in-house switch for external power sockets (which can otherwise be used by burglars to operate power tools)<br />
* Designing vandal-proof street furniture which can not be deconstructed into elements which can be used as tools for further vandalising.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For this measure to be used effectively, one should have the means to control the access to materials required for committing the crime. This is most prominently the case if these materials are available on location.<br />
<br />
Although this measure relies for a large part on awareness and alertness of residents and municipal services, the urban planner can provide conditions that are either beneficial or detrimental to the removal of means. This is expressed in a well-considered mix and location, functions, design and placement of street furniture. For example, as not placing a glass bus stop in line of sight of a skateboard track. Another example is designing structures in which an easy and effective access control can be maintained, such as providing sturdy and lockable storage space or harden the access to the rear of a residence.<br />
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=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
In urban planning terms, reducing the means which are conducive to crime can involve strategies such as the careful locating of public facilities (which are vulnerable to crime such as vandalism) away from crime generating land uses such as schools, entertainment facilities or bars.<br />
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The placement of bins (which can be used as mobile platforms) or trees should be carefully considered to avoid creating unnecessary advantages for opportunistic criminals to gain entry into windows etc.<br />
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Urban spaces benefit from natural surveillance measures which can reduce the prevalence of crime in overlooked or seldom visited areas.<br />
An analysis on whether measures to harden targets should be applied will also assist in identifying areas of potential vulnerability, removing the opportunity to vandalise and cause damage.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Some means that can be misused by offenders, serve a role in providing safety, such as fire escapes. Removing these should be done only after considering their effect on safety.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is that removing means can impact citizens agency, or perception thereof. This can have an effect on citizens capacity to adopt protective measures, which again can influence societal resilience. Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in security-related urban planning can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of removing means should include usability tests in relevant social contexts. [[Participatory Diagnosis]] is an example of a method to use.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Removing means mitigates and deters security threats, but at the same time demands an investment in time and effort by private agents, companies/developers, and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of removing means contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as the investment costs in vandal-proof street furniture or the in-house switch for external power sockets. In addition removing means generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. In essence, by making the access to certain required tools more difficult, this will not only reduce the mobility of criminals but also of the owners, users with economic consequences since time is money.<br />
<br />
Whether the act of removing means as a security measures makes sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors and is case dependent (see the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment as an example). One should, first of all, compare the potential cost-benefits with other alternatives such as [[measure: Target hardening|target hardening]] or [[Measure: Removal of crime motivator|removal of crime motivator]]. Secondly, one has to take in account which parties are affected by the act of removing means, who is paying for it, whose activities are affected by it, and so on. And last but not least, how the envisioned measure alter the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]].<br />
<br />
''Case example: Effectiveness of removing means:''<br />
{{quote| In the same way the Association of British Insurers (ABI)<ref>Association of British Insurers (2006). ''Securing the Nation: The Case for Safer Homes''</ref> performed a cost-benefit analysis on [[Measure: Target hardening#Economic considerations|target hardening]] measures for home security, one could do the same for the measure 'removing means'. In general, if there are no means to enter a home, there will also be less burglaries so these measures could be considered as Security By Design measures. The ABI concluded that SBD-measures in total yield benefits of over £1,170 per household (in 20 years), nearly double the average cost of the introduced measures. Removing means will with no doubt contribute to this result.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are no important mobility considerations of the measure Removing means, since mobility and mobility infrastructure is not a tool that can be removed for committing a crime (except for [[Measure: Access control|access control]], as described in the Examples section) and removing tools that can be used to commit a crime (e.g. a ladder) don't influence mobility.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Removing means also can mean to remove opportunities for agency, such impacting citizens’ freedom to act. Increase in security may be echoed by increase in restrictions. This needs to be assessed on a case by case basis that considers, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. <br />
<br />
There are no [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Main [[Legal aspects|legal]] considerations relate to the impact of the removal of means on legal power and on freedom to act. <br />
<br />
VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning. <br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Removing_means&diff=13064Measure type: Removing means2013-08-20T09:58:36Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Measure]]Removing means is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by reducing the availability of tools or other means conductive to crime.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Mary Plantation Guest House Side Ladder.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A ladder can be an inviting tool for a burglar]]Many forms of crime require tools or materials: burglars use tools to force entry, vandals will use objects to destroy, graffiti artist require spray paint or markers. By making the access to these required tools more difficult, committing the crimes is made more difficult. <br />
<br />
This form of crime reduction is most prominently effective in situations where the required tools are available at or close to the crime location. Arson as a form of vandalism for instance, thrives on the presence of flammable goods and burglars can be greatly aided by the presence of a ladder. Making sure these goods are not present, or not accessible can therefore increase the effort needed to commit these crimes.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
Some examples of removing (the access to) means, are:<br />
* Providing strict access control to debris-prone areas like construction/demolition sites <br />
* Placement of vandalism prone elements far from "hang-out" areas<br />
* Providing lockable sheds for storage of ladders and tools<br />
* Providing an in-house switch for external power sockets (which can otherwise be used by burglars to operate power tools)<br />
* Designing vandal-proof street furniture which can not be deconstructed into elements which can be used as tools for further vandalising.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For this measure to be used effectively, one should have the means to control the access to materials required for committing the crime. This is most prominently the case if these materials are available on location.<br />
<br />
Although this measure relies for a large part on awareness and alertness of residents and municipal services, the urban planner can provide conditions that are either beneficial or detrimental to the removal of means. This is expressed in a well-considered mix and location, functions, design and placement of street furniture. For example, as not placing a glass bus stop in line of sight of a skateboard track. Another example is designing structures in which an easy and effective access control can be maintained, such as providing sturdy and lockable storage space or harden the access to the rear of a residence.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
In urban planning terms, reducing the means which are conducive to crime can involve strategies such as the careful locating of public facilities (which are vulnerable to crime such as vandalism) away from crime generating land uses such as schools, entertainment facilities or bars.<br />
<br />
The placement of bins (which can be used as mobile platforms) or trees should be carefully considered to avoid creating unnecessary advantages for opportunistic criminals to gain entry into windows etc.<br />
<br />
Urban spaces benefit from natural surveillance measures which can reduce the prevalence of crime in overlooked or seldom visited areas.<br />
An analysis on whether measures to harden targets should be applied will also assist in identifying areas of potential vulnerability, removing the opportunity to vandalise and cause damage.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Some means that can be misused by offenders, serve a role in providing safety, such as fire escapes. Removing these should be done only after considering their effect on safety.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is that removing means can impact citizens agency, or perception thereof. This can have an effect on citizens capacity to adopt protective measures, which again can influence societal resilience. Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in security-related urban planning can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of removing means should include usability tests in relevant social contexts. [[Participatory Diagnosis]] is an example of a method to use.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Removing means mitigates and deters security threats, but at the same time demands an investment in time and effort by private agents, companies/developers, and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of removing means contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as the investment costs in vandal-proof street furniture or the in-house switch for external power sockets. In addition removing means generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. In essence, by making the access to certain required tools more difficult, this will not only reduce the mobility of criminals but also of the owners, users with economic consequences since time is money.<br />
<br />
Whether the act of removing means as a security measures makes sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors and is case dependent (see the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment as an example). One should, first of all, compare the potential cost-benefits with other alternatives such as [[measure: Target hardening|target hardening]] or [[Measure: Removal of crime motivator|removal of crime motivator]]. Secondly, one has to take in account which parties are affected by the act of removing means, who is paying for it, whose activities are affected by it, and so on. And last but not least, how the envisioned measure alter the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]].<br />
<br />
''Case example: Effectiveness of removing means:''<br />
{{quote| In the same way the Association of British Insurers (ABI)<ref>Association of British Insurers (2006). ''Securing the Nation: The Case for Safer Homes''</ref> performed a cost-benefit analysis on [[Measure: Target hardening#Economic considerations|target hardening]] measures for home security, one could do the same for the measure 'removing means'. In general, if there are no means to enter a home, there will also be less burglaries so these measures could be considered as Security By Design measures. The ABI concluded that SBD-measures in total yield benefits of over £1,170 per household (in 20 years), nearly double the average cost of the introduced measures. Removing means will with no doubt contribute to this result.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are no important mobility considerations of the measure Removing means, since mobility and mobility infrastructure is not a tool that can be removed for committing a crime (except for access control, as described in the example section) and removing tools that can be used to commit a crime (e.g. a ladder) don't influence mobility.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Removing means also can mean to remove opportunities for agency, such impacting citizens’ freedom to act. Increase in security may be echoed by increase in restrictions. This needs to be assessed on a case by case basis that considers, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. <br />
<br />
There are no [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Main [[Legal aspects|legal]] considerations relate to the impact of the removal of means on legal power and on freedom to act. <br />
<br />
VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning. <br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Removing_means&diff=13063Measure type: Removing means2013-08-20T09:55:27Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Measure]]Removing means is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by reducing the availability of tools or other means conductive to crime.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Mary Plantation Guest House Side Ladder.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A ladder can be an inviting tool for a burglar]]Many forms of crime require tools or materials: burglars use tools to force entry, vandals will use objects to destroy, graffiti artist require spray paint or markers. By making the access to these required tools more difficult, committing the crimes is made more difficult. <br />
<br />
This form of crime reduction is most prominently effective in situations where the required tools are available at or close to the crime location. Arson as a form of vandalism for instance, thrives on the presence of flammable goods and burglars can be greatly aided by the presence of a ladder. Making sure these goods are not present, or not accessible can therefore increase the effort needed to commit these crimes.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
Some examples of removing (the access to) means, are:<br />
* Providing strict access control to debris-prone areas like construction/demolition sites <br />
* Placement of vandalism prone elements far from "hang-out" areas<br />
* Providing lockable sheds for storage of ladders and tools<br />
* Providing an in-house switch for external power sockets (which can otherwise be used by burglars to operate power tools)<br />
* Designing vandal-proof street furniture which can not be deconstructed into elements which can be used as tools for further vandalising.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For this measure to be used effectively, one should have the means to control the access to materials required for committing the crime. This is most prominently the case if these materials are available on location.<br />
<br />
Although this measure relies for a large part on awareness and alertness of residents and municipal services, the urban planner can provide conditions that are either beneficial or detrimental to the removal of means. This is expressed in a well-considered mix and location, functions, design and placement of street furniture. For example, as not placing a glass bus stop in line of sight of a skateboard track. Another example is designing structures in which an easy and effective access control can be maintained, such as providing sturdy and lockable storage space or harden the access to the rear of a residence.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
In urban planning terms, reducing the means which are conducive to crime can involve strategies such as the careful locating of public facilities (which are vulnerable to crime such as vandalism) away from crime generating land uses such as schools, entertainment facilities or bars.<br />
<br />
The placement of bins (which can be used as mobile platforms) or trees should be carefully considered to avoid creating unnecessary advantages for opportunistic criminals to gain entry into windows etc.<br />
<br />
Urban spaces benefit from natural surveillance measures which can reduce the prevalence of crime in overlooked or seldom visited areas.<br />
An analysis on whether measures to harden targets should be applied will also assist in identifying areas of potential vulnerability, removing the opportunity to vandalise and cause damage.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Some means that can be misused by offenders, serve a role in providing safety, such as fire escapes. Removing these should be done only after considering their effect on safety.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is that removing means can impact citizens agency, or perception thereof. This can have an effect on citizens capacity to adopt protective measures, which again can influence societal resilience. Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in security-related urban planning can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of removing means should include usability tests in relevant social contexts. [[Participatory Diagnosis]] is an example of a method to use.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Removing means mitigates and deters security threats, but at the same time demands an investment in time and effort by private agents, companies/developers, and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of removing means contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as the investment costs in vandal-proof street furniture or the in-house switch for external power sockets. In addition removing means generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. In essence, by making the access to certain required tools more difficult, this will not only reduce the mobility of criminals but also of the owners, users with economic consequences since time is money.<br />
<br />
Whether the act of removing means as a security measures makes sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors and is case dependent (see the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment as an example). One should, first of all, compare the potential cost-benefits with other alternatives such as [[measure: Target hardening|target hardening]] or [[Measure: Removal of crime motivator|removal of crime motivator]]. Secondly, one has to take in account which parties are affected by the act of removing means, who is paying for it, whose activities are affected by it, and so on. And last but not least, how the envisioned measure alter the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]].<br />
<br />
''Case example: Effectiveness of removing means:''<br />
{{quote| In the same way the Association of British Insurers (ABI)<ref>Association of British Insurers (2006). ''Securing the Nation: The Case for Safer Homes''</ref> performed a cost-benefit analysis on [[Measure: Target hardening#Economic considerations|target hardening]] measures for home security, one could do the same for the measure 'removing means'. In general, if there are no means to enter a home, there will also be less burglaries so these measures could be considered as Security By Design measures. The ABI concluded that SBD-measures in total yield benefits of over £1,170 per household (in 20 years), nearly double the average cost of the introduced measures. Removing means will with no doubt contribute to this result.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are no direct mobility considerations foreseen of the measure Removing means, since mobility and mobility infrastructure is not a tool that can be removed for committing a crime and removing tools that can be used to commit a crime (e.g. a ladder) don't influence mobility.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Removing means also can mean to remove opportunities for agency, such impacting citizens’ freedom to act. Increase in security may be echoed by increase in restrictions. This needs to be assessed on a case by case basis that considers, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. <br />
<br />
There are no [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Main [[Legal aspects|legal]] considerations relate to the impact of the removal of means on legal power and on freedom to act. <br />
<br />
VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning. <br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure:_Removal_of_crime_motivator&diff=12563Measure: Removal of crime motivator2013-06-17T13:26:30Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Removal of a crime motivator''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by removing the benefits of a crime.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
A crime motivator is an important reason of the offender to commit his or her crime. For a burglar, for instance this would be financial gain, a graffiti artist would like his work to be visible to the intended audience, a vandal likes a spectacular way of failing (like shattered glass) of or damage to the object and a terrorist would like his act to be widely advertised.<br />
<br />
The measure of removal of the crime motivator is directed at denying the offer the 'rewards' of his or her crime. For example, by removing the opportunity to sell stolen goods, the motivation for burglary can be removed.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Making goods unsellable by marking them[[Image:Codiertes Rad.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bicycle marked against theft]]<br />
* Constructing street furniture and street art out of invaluable materials, so stealing and selling the metal does not pay<br />
* Constructing vandalism-prone objects from materials that fail in non-spectacular fashions<br />
* Designing street furniture for rapid repair (for example by modular design)<br />
* Designing walls designed for rapid removal of graffiti (by for instance coating them)<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
There are no specific environmental conditions required to make removal of crime motivators effective, but a good removal of crime motivators measure does require a good understanding what motivates a perpetrator and some creativity to remove this aspect from the environment without impairing the function of the object (too much). <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning can play an important role in the removal of crime motivators through the creation of places which feature high levels of passive surveillance, and limiting or removing spaces which are not overlooked or observed. This reduces or removes the opportunity for criminals to commit crimes within such locations, making them safer and more secure. The use of passive surveillance is more desirable than active surveillance methods, as not only are such places more cost effective to secure, but areas which feature a high proportion of active surveillance measures can become counterproductive in some instances by making such places oppressive in character.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
As long as safety functions of the concerned objects and materials are sufficiently considered, removal of crime motivators has no effects on safety and security.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
The removal of crime motivator is a perfect case example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of [[Social aspects|social,]] economic, [[Culture aspects|cultural]] and environmental aspects in urban design. As such being a complex measure - although seeming an easy, "technical" solution -, it will only be effective and accepted by the public if it takes the existing [[security culture]] ínto account. This can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of removal of crime motivator should include usability test in relevant social contexts. An example of a specific practical method to accomplish this is the [[Safety audit]], which focuses on local and context-specific solutions to address security issues.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Removal of crime motivator (see the case example below) deters and prevents crime, but at the same time demands investments, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of measures like the removal of crime motivators contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs such as investments in coatings for wall (against graffiti) or the construction of vandalism-prone objects. In addition, the removal of crime motivator generates various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] as the result of subsequent rounds of expenditure ('re-expenditures') of business companies, households and public authorities outside the security market. Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures change/alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Cost-effectiveness of removal of crime motivators aimed at criminal juveniles:''<br />
{{quote|"Many social and economic policies designed for other purposes may also reduce the incidence of serious crimes. Programs to encourage young people to remain in school, for example, have proved to be one of the most cost-effective crime-reduction strategies"(Greenwood, 2004)<ref>Greenwood, P. (2004). Cost-Effective Violence Prevention Through Targeted Family Interventions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1036: 201-214. In: Shapiro, J. and K.A. Hassett (2012). ''The Economic Benefits of Reducing Violent Crime. A Case Study of 8 American Cities'': 5</ref>. Another study by the Australian Institute of Criminology (1998)<ref>Weatherburn, D. & B. Lind (1998). ''Poverty, Parenting, Peers and Crime-Prone Neighbourhoods''. Australian Institute of Criminology. Trends & Issues in crime and criminal justice. No.85</ref> finds that economic and social disadvantages have a disruptive effect on parenting skills (in terms of neglect and abuse), causing juveniles to participate in criminal activities, especially in crime prone areas. Hence, the study conclude that long-term measures against juvenile crime aimed at improving parenting skills (e.g. by reducing the level of economic stress (poverty) or the introduction of family and child support programs) will contribute significantly to the reduction of juvenile crime, even though these benefits will not be realised as fast as in comparison to, for example, policing, which is mostly aimed at reducing the frequency of offences (and not so much the supply of motivated offenders).}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, removal of crime motivator can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Since the removal of crime motivator is a measure that belongs to the [[designing out approach]], or to [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], it is complex and demands larger investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Mobility is normally not affected by removal of crime motivators, since it will not affect the road infrastructure or the traffic demand. Also, traffic or traffic infrastructure is usually not a crime motivator in itself.<br />
There could be a (negligable) effect of attracting less traffic to places which used to be attractive for crime offenders, after the crime motivator was removed.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Since not all crime motivators have a criminal quality in themselves, removing motivators may in some cases involve a risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties). <br />
<br />
Pinpointing specific [[Ethics aspects|ethics aspects]] in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Detailed [[Legal aspects|legal]] coverage of this measure is needed at the level of detail implications, e.g., splitting groups of people. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Controlling_disinhibitors&diff=12562Measure type: Controlling disinhibitors2013-06-17T13:20:13Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Controlling disinhibitors''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by removing or regulating disinhibiting substances or circumstances.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Disinhibitors can be defined as substances or circumstances that decrease the inhibitions of an offender to commit crimes. Studies<ref>Greenfield, Lawrence A, ''Alcohol and crime, and analysis of national data on the pravalence of alcohol involvement in crime'', prepared for the Assistant Attorney General's National symposium on alcohol abuse and crim, April5-7, 1998, Washington D.C.</ref> have shown that drugs, but above all alcohol are conductive to some forms of crime<ref>About 1 in 3 convicted offender had been drinking alcohol at the time of their crime.</ref>, particularly violent crimes.<br />
<br />
It should be noted that not only behaviour-altering substances can influence natural inhibitions, but for instance untidy environments or environments in disrepair can stimulate vandalism and other crimes.[[Image:One of York's less scenic spots - geograph.org.uk - 1130246.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cluttered, untidy and unstructured spots attract crime]]<br />
<br />
Also, environmental conditions, like overly high temperatures in crowds or gatherings, can affect the public's mood and decrease inhibitions to aggressive behaviour.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* School restroom thermostats kept at 62°F<br />
* Repainting of playground equipment in bright colours<br />
* Beautification programs (e.g., landscaping, painting, maintenance)<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
In controlling disinhibitors one should be aware that at least part of the people will actively seek circumstances that will diminish their inhibitions. Any measure taken to control disinhibitors should be planned to include alternative sources of disinhibitors: early closing hours for the bars will not suffice if people can bring their own alcohol to alternative locations and 'party on'.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Poorly planned urban spaces can have an instrumental role in the disinhibition of anti-social or criminal behaviour. In this situation, urban planning must be used to limit the incidences of poor quality urban spaces through the encouragement of good quality urban areas which can function as an inhibitor to criminal or anti-social activities.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Disinhibitors will not only affect the behaviour of people regarding criminal behaviour, but rather their behaviour in general. This means that controlling disinhibitors will generally not only affect security, but also safety: when people are more in control of their actions, accidents as a result of reckless driving or driving under influence will decrease as well as injuries as a result of rowdy behaviour or loss of balance due to intoxication.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of the measure of controlling dishiibitors to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens' self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and felt security gaps. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in security-related urban planning can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of controlling disinhibitors should include usabiltiy tests in relevant social contexts. A practical method to support social considerations in planning for controlling of disinhibitors is, for example, the [[Safety audit]], which focuses on local and context-specific solutions to address security issues.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors (see example below) deters and mitigates security threats. There are, however, costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). ''Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas''. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of controlling disinhibitors contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: A statistical analysis of bar closing hours:''<br />
{{quote|A Scandinavian study on the impact of small changes in bar closing hours on violence concluded that "each additional 1-hour extension to the opening times of premises is associated with a 16% increase in violent crime"<ref>Rossow, I., T Noström (2011). ''The impact of small changes in bar closing hours on violence. The Norwegian experience from 18 cities''. Society for the Study of Addiction.</ref>. Combined with the cost of an average violent event, one could relatively easily determine the socio-economic benefits of a decrease in opening hours as a measure to control disinhibitors. In order to determine the cost-effectiveness, though, one should for example include the decrease in revenues by commercial venues due to the limited opening hours, the lost of customers for taxi drivers, and so on.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, controlling disinhibitors can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth (2009). ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Since controlling disinhibitors belongs to the [[designing out approach]], and is an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], it is a compelx measure that in general demands larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors can have a positive effect on driving behaviour and therefore on traffic. For example, if alcohol use can be reduced, [[Traffic safety|traffic safety]] will be increased. Also creating a pleasant environment can improve the mood of drivers and their driver behaviour. This can for example create a smoother traffic flow with less accidents and congestion. Also, aggression in traffic is less likely to occur in a pleasant environment. <br />
A pleasant environment for traffic also means that the road layout should be understandable and easily driveable. An example of the opposite, a road lay-out which is not pleasant and might increase aggressiveness among drivers, is a narrow road with many narrowing sections where the right-of-way is not regulated. Drivers might get irritated at the narrowing sections when they don't get right-of-way, or try to enforce right of way.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Since not all disinhibitors have a criminal quality in themselves, removing motivators may in some cases involve a risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties). <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific [[Ethics aspects|ethics aspects]] in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
A prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] consideration is the tight to deny substances to people and how this may interfere, for example, with the fundamental right of freedom of action. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Ownership&diff=12561Measure type: Ownership2013-06-17T13:10:01Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ownership''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by establishing an environment where there is a clear separation between public and private space.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Research<ref>Goldstein, Arnold P., ''Controlling Vandalism: The Person-Environment Duet'', School oriented interventions, pp 290-321</ref> has shown that a lack of ownership can act as a disinhibitor for certain crimes, as "Uncertainty of ownership can reduce responsibility and increase the likelihood of crime and anti-social behaviour going unchallenged". Ownership is described as "Places that promote a sense of ownership, respect, territorial responsibility and community".<br />
<br />
The level of ownership is expressed in a clear distinction between public, semi-private/communal and private space:<br />
# Will it be clear to users — including potential offenders and capable guardians — which space is public, communal, semi-private and private?<br />
# Are the boundaries between public, communal and private space signified in the most appropriate manner, be it a physical barrier or a psychological barrier such as changes in paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping and signage?<br />
# Will the place have an identity of its own?<br />
# Are all those who should feel ownership involved in defining the place’s identity?<br />
# Are barriers of a high quality of design in their detailing and appropriate to their local context?<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
[[Image:Wood fence.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Wood fence, indicating a clear distinction between public and private space. The open structure does not restrict surveillance,]]<br />
* Providing a clear demarcation between public and private territory by fences, paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping, planting and/or signage.<br />
* Increasing the felt level of responsibility for the environment by involving residents and users. This can be achieved in a number of ways, such as town centre management partnerships, tenant management organisations, community development trusts, regeneration programmes and management trusts<ref>Home Office, ''Safer Places. The planning system and crime prevention'', 2004</ref>.<br />
* Involving the community in the design of (parts of) communal spaces.<br />
* Increasing a sense of communality by using distinct and common design features, like colours or architecture.<br />
* Hiring of unemployed youths as subway vandalism inspectors.<br />
* "[http://www.acorp.uk.com/Station%20Adoption%20main.html Adopt-a-station]" antivandalism programs.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
The form of measures that are most suited to provide ownership depend on the location and use of the object. High fences and landscape that actively impede access are most appropriate in places that are vulnerable to crime, such as the back of dwellings. Lower barriers, hedges and bushes are also highly useful to signify the public/private divide.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning has an important role to play in facilitating the delineation of spaces and allowing the clear illustration of ownership, while also preserving the functionality, surveillance and (in some examples) permeability which is required of it. By making the concept of ownership clearly visible, the likelihood of criminal or anti-social behaviour can be reduced. In this way, it will be possible to ensure that such spaces retain a positive role within the overall urban fabric.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Wherever an increased sense of ownership leads to an increase in social cohesion, this may lead to an increased social concern to one another. This concern can lead to a decrease in security issues (by for example the public not accepting aggression to an fellow resident), or in safety issues (like people providing first aid to an injured fellow resident after an accident).<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Each city and community is distinct, with specific population characteristics, physical spaces, government structures, values and history. Each will thus have its particular security problems and public security cultures that co-determine whether urban design will be accepted by citizens and used appropriately. Ownership is a way to address this. <br />
<br />
The main [[Social aspects|social]] consideration behind the measure of ownership is that an individual and social sense of 'belonging to' and 'holding a share of', supported by favourable and attractive design of built infrastructure, increases citizens' preparedness, capability to respond, and resilience to crime, terrorism and disaster. Since vulnerability changes with the type of hazard,<ref>S. Schneiderbauer, D. Ehrlich: Social Levels and Hazard (In)dependence in Determining Vulnerability, in J. Birkmann (ed.): Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, pp. 78-102 (p. 81).</ref> the measure of ownership is not a 'one size fits all' approach. <br />
<br />
The measures of ownership needs careful assesment and planning in order to be responsive to citizens' felt security needs. It will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience. Moreover, ownership-supporting built infrastructure may have negative impact on societal resilience: Research has shown, for example, that prominent protective built infrastructure (such as walls and fences) can make people to underestimate real risks and also makes them reluctant to adopt protective measures at individual and social levels, thus potentially undermining societal resilience.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that resilience-enhancing measures are no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> This means that the measure of ownership requires a [[comprehensive approach]]. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of the social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in planning and implementaion of the measure of ownership can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of ownership should include tests of usability social contexts. Suitable related methods that at the same time can promote citizens' sense of owenership, for example include [[Appreciative planning]] or [[Local open dialogue]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Privatising public space for security purposes does not necessarily imply that the involved actors also actually 'own' the specific urban object/environment in legal and financial terms. Increasing the involvement of residents and users with the help of regeneration programmes or "adoption"-programmes, for example, does not make these people the legal owner of the specific urban objects, but does increase the involvement of the members of a community. <br />
<br />
The costs of 'ownership' measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investment in design features or hiring unemployed youths. <br />
In addition, ownership generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perceived security in an area (less crime is good for business). Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned 'ownership' measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the surveillance measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]?<br />
<br />
''Case example: Cost-effective security programmes for schools''<br />
{{quote|The Department of Education and Training in Western Australia initiated in 1999 a successful security risk management programme helping school principals to evaluate existing security measures and determine cost-effective levels of security to meet the risks faced by their schools <ref>[http://www.oecd.org/education/country-studies/centreforeffectivelearningenvironmentscele/38162484.pdf OECD (2007). ''School Security Assessment Programme in Australia.''PEB Exchange 2007/3 ISSN 1609-7548]</ref>. Part of this assessment was the draft of a treatment plan for which the principal provided a description of the school plan, including costs of individual security measures and the applied locations. The programme was very successful in reducing the number of offences (13 - 40%) and cost of crime (30 - 70%)<ref>This excepts the result of one particular school which dealt with an isolated crime occurrence of stolen computers during the programme evaluation.</ref> against relatively small investment costs between AUD 27,000 and AUD 49,000. One of the suggested security measures was ownership/territorial reinforcement in which not only staff and students are involved, but also the community through the School Watch Programme. Other measures were target hardening, surveillance, landscape management and lighting.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Mobility infrastructure is usually public, though private roads may exist, which is usually indicated with signs which prohibit entering for public users. Also companies often own a private parking area which is only accessible to employees and visitors of the company. This is usually regulated with a barrier with intercom at the entrance.<br />
<br />
Furthermore there can be made a distinction between public and private means of transport. The difference is usually clear (e.g. public buses and private cars), though in some cases it could be unclear if a taxi is an 'offical' public taxi or some private vehicle pretending to be a taxi. Especially in less developed countries (such as Indonesia), transport is offered by all sorts of vehicles ((mini)buses, taxis, [https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cycle_rickshaw rickshaw/becak], scooters) and many not regulated by offical public transport companies. It may be unclear if a bus is an 'official' bus and prices are not regulated. This will create a less safe environment for using public transport. Often touts will offer transport for very high prices to tourists, drive unsafe and/or use unsafe vehicles. This can be approved by making clear which are the 'official' bus- or taxi companies, e.g. using a uniform colour and published schedule and prices, using fixed bus stop locations, or asking the taxi driver for a taxi permit or taxi with regulated taximeter.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Ownership-enhancing measures may incur [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Creating sense of ownership may in the final analysis contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be the case in a situation where increase in ownership in one community displaces crime to another community. It may furthermore the case that enhancement of ownership will be – unintendedly – at the expense of other groups of citizens, e.g. reducing their rights to movement, etc. <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] cosiderations include property rights and building codes, as well as the possible involvement of environmental regulations and legislation for stability of housing. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Deflection&diff=12560Measure type: Deflection2013-06-17T13:07:20Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Deflection''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by creating circumstances that direct criminals to less critical objects or redirects the motivational causes into non-criminal means of expression.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Urinal Fly.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A fly drawn in a urinal, a deflection measure to prevent visitors from aiming at other 'targets']]This is the channelling of potentially criminal or aggressive behaviour in more pro-social directions by means of architectural, equipment, and related alterations.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Provision of graffiti boards and mural programs where graffiti artist may legally express themselves<br />
* Interesting wallpaper, daily newspaper, chalkboard on bathroom wall<br />
* Providing activity centres, sport halls or skateboard terrains for potentially loitering youth<br />
* Separating incompatible public by designing some areas to appeal to only one group and other areas to the other group<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
As this measure does not actually reduce crime, but rather directs the crime to less critical targets, the measure is best suited for crimes that are (more or less) acceptable in specific places, such as vandalism or graffiti. For more serious crimes that would be unacceptable in any circumstance, this measure is not applicable.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
The use of deflection methods, which encourage responsible use of urban spaces by providing a suitable outlet for activities which would otherwise take place in an anti-social manner, is becoming an important tool for urban planners. Urban planners have, in this way, been able to facilitate the protection of urban spaces which would otherwise be the target of such criminal or anti-social activities. From a planning perspective, it is important to ensure that facilities which are designed to accommodate deflection are seen as a more attractive option than those that would otherwise be used, resulting in criminal or anti-social behaviour.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Before redirecting crime to another target one should be well aware of the possible consequences for that new target and its surroundings. For example, opening a skateboard park to get rid of loitering youth can cause inconvenience at the skateboard park due to the noise of rolling skateboards, an increase of vandalism in the surroundings or harassments in the bus to and from the skateboard park.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Deflection may result in displacing risk and hazard from one urban area to another. The measure should be assessed in the broader contexct of the public interest. While the public interest is a question of continuous debate, both in its general principles and case-by-case applications, it requires a conscientiously held view of the policies and actions that best serve the entire community. An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of the measure of deflection to citizens' felt security needs. Measures will only be responsive if they are based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. <br />
<br />
Deflecting risk is no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks. <ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref><br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they relate to the measure of deflection can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of deflection should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. I suitable method is for example [[Appreciative planning]], which helps work out shared and consensual perspectives on security aspects in the urban planning. process;<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Deflection mitigates the chance of a security threat, but at the same time demands some kind of investment in time, capital and effort by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of deflection contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments and investments in activity centres, sport halls or graffiti boards. In addition, deflection measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] due to its effect on society (e.g. less fear and crime is good for local business and consumer confidence).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, deflection can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, deflection is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these measures demand larger investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
The road network can be designed in such a way that areas where visiting people or vehicles are not wanted will attract less traffic, for example by making the roads to these areas less attractive (lower speed limit, speed bumps etc.). Or, the other way around, by providing good and easily accessible roads between the origin/destination pairs that have to accommodate a lot of traffic. Also ''green waves'' (successive intersections where the green times are tuned such that drivers will experience successive green traffic lights on their route) can be established on these roads, while larger red times on intersections can be used to make other routes less attractive.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Deflection may involve risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties, separation of powers, and endorsement of checks and balances). Deflection may also come with [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Architectural alterations to support deflection can contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be, for example, the case in a situation where deflection in some area displaces crime to another community. This illustrates the need to provide norms and standards beyond frameworks for built infrastructure<br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing measures of deflection, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Ownership&diff=12559Measure type: Ownership2013-06-17T13:06:33Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ownership''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by establishing an environment where there is a clear separation between public and private space.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Research<ref>Goldstein, Arnold P., ''Controlling Vandalism: The Person-Environment Duet'', School oriented interventions, pp 290-321</ref> has shown that a lack of ownership can act as a disinhibitor for certain crimes, as "Uncertainty of ownership can reduce responsibility and increase the likelihood of crime and anti-social behaviour going unchallenged". Ownership is described as "Places that promote a sense of ownership, respect, territorial responsibility and community".<br />
<br />
The level of ownership is expressed in a clear distinction between public, semi-private/communal and private space:<br />
# Will it be clear to users — including potential offenders and capable guardians — which space is public, communal, semi-private and private?<br />
# Are the boundaries between public, communal and private space signified in the most appropriate manner, be it a physical barrier or a psychological barrier such as changes in paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping and signage?<br />
# Will the place have an identity of its own?<br />
# Are all those who should feel ownership involved in defining the place’s identity?<br />
# Are barriers of a high quality of design in their detailing and appropriate to their local context?<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
[[Image:Wood fence.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Wood fence, indicating a clear distinction between public and private space. The open structure does not restrict surveillance,]]<br />
* Providing a clear demarcation between public and private territory by fences, paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping, planting and/or signage.<br />
* Increasing the felt level of responsibility for the environment by involving residents and users. This can be achieved in a number of ways, such as town centre management partnerships, tenant management organisations, community development trusts, regeneration programmes and management trusts<ref>Home Office, ''Safer Places. The planning system and crime prevention'', 2004</ref>.<br />
* Involving the community in the design of (parts of) communal spaces.<br />
* Increasing a sense of communality by using distinct and common design features, like colours or architecture.<br />
* Hiring of unemployed youths as subway vandalism inspectors.<br />
* "[http://www.acorp.uk.com/Station%20Adoption%20main.html Adopt-a-station]" antivandalism programs.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
The form of measures that are most suited to provide ownership depend on the location and use of the object. High fences and landscape that actively impede access are most appropriate in places that are vulnerable to crime, such as the back of dwellings. Lower barriers, hedges and bushes are also highly useful to signify the public/private divide.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning has an important role to play in facilitating the delineation of spaces and allowing the clear illustration of ownership, while also preserving the functionality, surveillance and (in some examples) permeability which is required of it. By making the concept of ownership clearly visible, the likelihood of criminal or anti-social behaviour can be reduced. In this way, it will be possible to ensure that such spaces retain a positive role within the overall urban fabric.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Wherever an increased sense of ownership leads to an increase in social cohesion, this may lead to an increased social concern to one another. This concern can lead to a decrease in security issues (by for example the public not accepting aggression to an fellow resident), or in safety issues (like people providing first aid to an injured fellow resident after an accident).<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Each city and community is distinct, with specific population characteristics, physical spaces, government structures, values and history. Each will thus have its particular security problems and public security cultures that co-determine whether urban design will be accepted by citizens and used appropriately. Ownership is a way to address this. <br />
<br />
The main [[Social aspects|social]] consideration behind the measure of ownership is that an individual and social sense of 'belonging to' and 'holding a share of', supported by favourable and attractive design of built infrastructure, increases citizens' preparedness, capability to respond, and resilience to crime, terrorism and disaster. Since vulnerability changes with the type of hazard,<ref>S. Schneiderbauer, D. Ehrlich: Social Levels and Hazard (In)dependence in Determining Vulnerability, in J. Birkmann (ed.): Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, pp. 78-102 (p. 81).</ref> the measure of ownership is not a 'one size fits all' approach. <br />
<br />
The measures of ownership needs careful assesment and planning in order to be responsive to citizens' felt security needs. It will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience. Moreover, ownership-supporting built infrastructure may have negative impact on societal resilience: Research has shown, for example, that prominent protective built infrastructure (such as walls and fences) can make people to underestimate real risks and also makes them reluctant to adopt protective measures at individual and social levels, thus potentially undermining societal resilience.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that resilience-enhancing measures are no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> This means that the measure of ownership requires a [[comprehensive approach]]. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of the social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in planning and implementaion of the measure of ownership can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of ownership should include tests of usability social contexts. Suitable related methods that at the same time can promote citizens' sense of owenership, for example include [[Appreciative planning]] or [[Local open dialogue]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Privatising public space for security purposes does not necessarily imply that the involved actors also actually 'own' the specific urban object/environment in legal and financial terms. Increasing the involvement of residents and users with the help of regeneration programmes or "adoption"-programmes, for example, does not make these people the legal owner of the specific urban objects, but does increase the involvement of the members of a community. <br />
<br />
The costs of 'ownership' measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investment in design features or hiring unemployed youths. <br />
In addition, ownership generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perceived security in an area (less crime is good for business). Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned 'ownership' measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the surveillance measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]?<br />
<br />
''Case example: Cost-effective security programmes for schools''<br />
{{quote|The Department of Education and Training in Western Australia initiated in 1999 a successful security risk management programme helping school principals to evaluate existing security measures and determine cost-effective levels of security to meet the risks faced by their schools <ref>[http://www.oecd.org/education/country-studies/centreforeffectivelearningenvironmentscele/38162484.pdf OECD (2007). ''School Security Assessment Programme in Australia.''PEB Exchange 2007/3 ISSN 1609-7548]</ref>. Part of this assessment was the draft of a treatment plan for which the principal provided a description of the school plan, including costs of individual security measures and the applied locations. The programme was very successful in reducing the number of offences (13 - 40%) and cost of crime (30 - 70%)<ref>This excepts the result of one particular school which dealt with an isolated crime occurrence of stolen computers during the programme evaluation.</ref> against relatively small investment costs between AUD 27,000 and AUD 49,000. One of the suggested security measures was ownership/territorial reinforcement in which not only staff and students are involved, but also the community through the School Watch Programme. Other measures were target hardening, surveillance, landscape management and lighting.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Mobility infrastructure is usually public, though private roads may exist, which is usually indicated with signs which prohibit entering for public users. Also companies often own a private parking area which is only accessible to employees and visitors of the company. This is usually regulated with a barrier with intercom at the entrance.<br />
<br />
Furthermore there can be made a distinction between public and private means of transport. The difference is usually clear (e.g. public buses and private cars), though in some cases it could be unclear if a taxi is an 'offical' public taxi or some private vehicle pretending to be a taxi. Especially in less developed countries (such as Indonesia), transport is offered by all sorts of vehicles ((mini)buses, taxis, becak, scooters) and many not regulated by offical public transport companies. It may be unclear if a bus is an 'official' bus and prices are not regulated. This will create a less safe environment for using public transport. Often touts will offer transport for very high prices to tourists, drive unsafe and/or use unsafe vehicles. This can be approved by making clear which are the 'official' bus- or taxi companies, e.g. using a uniform colour and published schedule and prices, using fixed bus stop locations, or asking the taxi driver for a taxi permit or taxi with regulated taximeter.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Ownership-enhancing measures may incur [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Creating sense of ownership may in the final analysis contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be the case in a situation where increase in ownership in one community displaces crime to another community. It may furthermore the case that enhancement of ownership will be – unintendedly – at the expense of other groups of citizens, e.g. reducing their rights to movement, etc. <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] cosiderations include property rights and building codes, as well as the possible involvement of environmental regulations and legislation for stability of housing. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Ownership&diff=12558Measure type: Ownership2013-06-17T13:05:13Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ownership''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by establishing an environment where there is a clear separation between public and private space.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Research<ref>Goldstein, Arnold P., ''Controlling Vandalism: The Person-Environment Duet'', School oriented interventions, pp 290-321</ref> has shown that a lack of ownership can act as a disinhibitor for certain crimes, as "Uncertainty of ownership can reduce responsibility and increase the likelihood of crime and anti-social behaviour going unchallenged". Ownership is described as "Places that promote a sense of ownership, respect, territorial responsibility and community".<br />
<br />
The level of ownership is expressed in a clear distinction between public, semi-private/communal and private space:<br />
# Will it be clear to users — including potential offenders and capable guardians — which space is public, communal, semi-private and private?<br />
# Are the boundaries between public, communal and private space signified in the most appropriate manner, be it a physical barrier or a psychological barrier such as changes in paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping and signage?<br />
# Will the place have an identity of its own?<br />
# Are all those who should feel ownership involved in defining the place’s identity?<br />
# Are barriers of a high quality of design in their detailing and appropriate to their local context?<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
[[Image:Wood fence.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Wood fence, indicating a clear distinction between public and private space. The open structure does not restrict surveillance,]]<br />
* Providing a clear demarcation between public and private territory by fences, paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping, planting and/or signage.<br />
* Increasing the felt level of responsibility for the environment by involving residents and users. This can be achieved in a number of ways, such as town centre management partnerships, tenant management organisations, community development trusts, regeneration programmes and management trusts<ref>Home Office, ''Safer Places. The planning system and crime prevention'', 2004</ref>.<br />
* Involving the community in the design of (parts of) communal spaces.<br />
* Increasing a sense of communality by using distinct and common design features, like colours or architecture.<br />
* Hiring of unemployed youths as subway vandalism inspectors.<br />
* "[http://www.acorp.uk.com/Station%20Adoption%20main.html Adopt-a-station]" antivandalism programs.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
The form of measures that are most suited to provide ownership depend on the location and use of the object. High fences and landscape that actively impede access are most appropriate in places that are vulnerable to crime, such as the back of dwellings. Lower barriers, hedges and bushes are also highly useful to signify the public/private divide.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning has an important role to play in facilitating the delineation of spaces and allowing the clear illustration of ownership, while also preserving the functionality, surveillance and (in some examples) permeability which is required of it. By making the concept of ownership clearly visible, the likelihood of criminal or anti-social behaviour can be reduced. In this way, it will be possible to ensure that such spaces retain a positive role within the overall urban fabric.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Wherever an increased sense of ownership leads to an increase in social cohesion, this may lead to an increased social concern to one another. This concern can lead to a decrease in security issues (by for example the public not accepting aggression to an fellow resident), or in safety issues (like people providing first aid to an injured fellow resident after an accident).<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Each city and community is distinct, with specific population characteristics, physical spaces, government structures, values and history. Each will thus have its particular security problems and public security cultures that co-determine whether urban design will be accepted by citizens and used appropriately. Ownership is a way to address this. <br />
<br />
The main [[Social aspects|social]] consideration behind the measure of ownership is that an individual and social sense of 'belonging to' and 'holding a share of', supported by favourable and attractive design of built infrastructure, increases citizens' preparedness, capability to respond, and resilience to crime, terrorism and disaster. Since vulnerability changes with the type of hazard,<ref>S. Schneiderbauer, D. Ehrlich: Social Levels and Hazard (In)dependence in Determining Vulnerability, in J. Birkmann (ed.): Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, pp. 78-102 (p. 81).</ref> the measure of ownership is not a 'one size fits all' approach. <br />
<br />
The measures of ownership needs careful assesment and planning in order to be responsive to citizens' felt security needs. It will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience. Moreover, ownership-supporting built infrastructure may have negative impact on societal resilience: Research has shown, for example, that prominent protective built infrastructure (such as walls and fences) can make people to underestimate real risks and also makes them reluctant to adopt protective measures at individual and social levels, thus potentially undermining societal resilience.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that resilience-enhancing measures are no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> This means that the measure of ownership requires a [[comprehensive approach]]. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of the social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in planning and implementaion of the measure of ownership can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of ownership should include tests of usability social contexts. Suitable related methods that at the same time can promote citizens' sense of owenership, for example include [[Appreciative planning]] or [[Local open dialogue]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Privatising public space for security purposes does not necessarily imply that the involved actors also actually 'own' the specific urban object/environment in legal and financial terms. Increasing the involvement of residents and users with the help of regeneration programmes or "adoption"-programmes, for example, does not make these people the legal owner of the specific urban objects, but does increase the involvement of the members of a community. <br />
<br />
The costs of 'ownership' measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investment in design features or hiring unemployed youths. <br />
In addition, ownership generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perceived security in an area (less crime is good for business). Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned 'ownership' measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the surveillance measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]?<br />
<br />
''Case example: Cost-effective security programmes for schools''<br />
{{quote|The Department of Education and Training in Western Australia initiated in 1999 a successful security risk management programme helping school principals to evaluate existing security measures and determine cost-effective levels of security to meet the risks faced by their schools <ref>[http://www.oecd.org/education/country-studies/centreforeffectivelearningenvironmentscele/38162484.pdf OECD (2007). ''School Security Assessment Programme in Australia.''PEB Exchange 2007/3 ISSN 1609-7548]</ref>. Part of this assessment was the draft of a treatment plan for which the principal provided a description of the school plan, including costs of individual security measures and the applied locations. The programme was very successful in reducing the number of offences (13 - 40%) and cost of crime (30 - 70%)<ref>This excepts the result of one particular school which dealt with an isolated crime occurrence of stolen computers during the programme evaluation.</ref> against relatively small investment costs between AUD 27,000 and AUD 49,000. One of the suggested security measures was ownership/territorial reinforcement in which not only staff and students are involved, but also the community through the School Watch Programme. Other measures were target hardening, surveillance, landscape management and lighting.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Mobility infrastructure is usually public, though private roads may exist, which is usually indicated with signs which prohibit entering for public users. Also companies often own a private parking area which is only accessible to employees and visitors of the company. This is usually regulated with a barrier with intercom at the entrance.<br />
<br />
Furthermore there can be made a distinction between public and private means of transport. The difference is usually clear (e.g. public buses and private cars), though in some cases it could be unclear if a taxi is an 'offical' public taxi or some private vehicle pretending to be a taxi. Especially in less developed countries (such as Indonesia), transport is offered by all sorts of vehicles ((mini)buses, taxis, becak, scooters) and many not regulated by offical public transport companies. It may be unclear if a bus is an 'official' bus and prices are not regulated. This will create a less safe environment for using public transport. These private people are often touts offering transport for very high prices, drive unsafe and/or use unsafe vehicles. This can be approved by making clear which are the 'official' bus- or taxi companies, e.g. using a uniform colour and published schedule and prices, using fixed bus stop locations, or asking the taxi driver for a taxi permit or taxi with regulated taximeter.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Ownership-enhancing measures may incur [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Creating sense of ownership may in the final analysis contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be the case in a situation where increase in ownership in one community displaces crime to another community. It may furthermore the case that enhancement of ownership will be – unintendedly – at the expense of other groups of citizens, e.g. reducing their rights to movement, etc. <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] cosiderations include property rights and building codes, as well as the possible involvement of environmental regulations and legislation for stability of housing. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Ownership&diff=12557Measure type: Ownership2013-06-17T13:00:47Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ownership''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by establishing an environment where there is a clear separation between public and private space.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Research<ref>Goldstein, Arnold P., ''Controlling Vandalism: The Person-Environment Duet'', School oriented interventions, pp 290-321</ref> has shown that a lack of ownership can act as a disinhibitor for certain crimes, as "Uncertainty of ownership can reduce responsibility and increase the likelihood of crime and anti-social behaviour going unchallenged". Ownership is described as "Places that promote a sense of ownership, respect, territorial responsibility and community".<br />
<br />
The level of ownership is expressed in a clear distinction between public, semi-private/communal and private space:<br />
# Will it be clear to users — including potential offenders and capable guardians — which space is public, communal, semi-private and private?<br />
# Are the boundaries between public, communal and private space signified in the most appropriate manner, be it a physical barrier or a psychological barrier such as changes in paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping and signage?<br />
# Will the place have an identity of its own?<br />
# Are all those who should feel ownership involved in defining the place’s identity?<br />
# Are barriers of a high quality of design in their detailing and appropriate to their local context?<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
[[Image:Wood fence.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Wood fence, indicating a clear distinction between public and private space. The open structure does not restrict surveillance,]]<br />
* Providing a clear demarcation between public and private territory by fences, paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping, planting and/or signage.<br />
* Increasing the felt level of responsibility for the environment by involving residents and users. This can be achieved in a number of ways, such as town centre management partnerships, tenant management organisations, community development trusts, regeneration programmes and management trusts<ref>Home Office, ''Safer Places. The planning system and crime prevention'', 2004</ref>.<br />
* Involving the community in the design of (parts of) communal spaces.<br />
* Increasing a sense of communality by using distinct and common design features, like colours or architecture.<br />
* Hiring of unemployed youths as subway vandalism inspectors.<br />
* "[http://www.acorp.uk.com/Station%20Adoption%20main.html Adopt-a-station]" antivandalism programs.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
The form of measures that are most suited to provide ownership depend on the location and use of the object. High fences and landscape that actively impede access are most appropriate in places that are vulnerable to crime, such as the back of dwellings. Lower barriers, hedges and bushes are also highly useful to signify the public/private divide.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning has an important role to play in facilitating the delineation of spaces and allowing the clear illustration of ownership, while also preserving the functionality, surveillance and (in some examples) permeability which is required of it. By making the concept of ownership clearly visible, the likelihood of criminal or anti-social behaviour can be reduced. In this way, it will be possible to ensure that such spaces retain a positive role within the overall urban fabric.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Wherever an increased sense of ownership leads to an increase in social cohesion, this may lead to an increased social concern to one another. This concern can lead to a decrease in security issues (by for example the public not accepting aggression to an fellow resident), or in safety issues (like people providing first aid to an injured fellow resident after an accident).<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Each city and community is distinct, with specific population characteristics, physical spaces, government structures, values and history. Each will thus have its particular security problems and public security cultures that co-determine whether urban design will be accepted by citizens and used appropriately. Ownership is a way to address this. <br />
<br />
The main [[Social aspects|social]] consideration behind the measure of ownership is that an individual and social sense of 'belonging to' and 'holding a share of', supported by favourable and attractive design of built infrastructure, increases citizens' preparedness, capability to respond, and resilience to crime, terrorism and disaster. Since vulnerability changes with the type of hazard,<ref>S. Schneiderbauer, D. Ehrlich: Social Levels and Hazard (In)dependence in Determining Vulnerability, in J. Birkmann (ed.): Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, pp. 78-102 (p. 81).</ref> the measure of ownership is not a 'one size fits all' approach. <br />
<br />
The measures of ownership needs careful assesment and planning in order to be responsive to citizens' felt security needs. It will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience. Moreover, ownership-supporting built infrastructure may have negative impact on societal resilience: Research has shown, for example, that prominent protective built infrastructure (such as walls and fences) can make people to underestimate real risks and also makes them reluctant to adopt protective measures at individual and social levels, thus potentially undermining societal resilience.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that resilience-enhancing measures are no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> This means that the measure of ownership requires a [[comprehensive approach]]. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of the social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in planning and implementaion of the measure of ownership can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of ownership should include tests of usability social contexts. Suitable related methods that at the same time can promote citizens' sense of owenership, for example include [[Appreciative planning]] or [[Local open dialogue]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Privatising public space for security purposes does not necessarily imply that the involved actors also actually 'own' the specific urban object/environment in legal and financial terms. Increasing the involvement of residents and users with the help of regeneration programmes or "adoption"-programmes, for example, does not make these people the legal owner of the specific urban objects, but does increase the involvement of the members of a community. <br />
<br />
The costs of 'ownership' measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investment in design features or hiring unemployed youths. <br />
In addition, ownership generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perceived security in an area (less crime is good for business). Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned 'ownership' measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the surveillance measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]?<br />
<br />
''Case example: Cost-effective security programmes for schools''<br />
{{quote|The Department of Education and Training in Western Australia initiated in 1999 a successful security risk management programme helping school principals to evaluate existing security measures and determine cost-effective levels of security to meet the risks faced by their schools <ref>[http://www.oecd.org/education/country-studies/centreforeffectivelearningenvironmentscele/38162484.pdf OECD (2007). ''School Security Assessment Programme in Australia.''PEB Exchange 2007/3 ISSN 1609-7548]</ref>. Part of this assessment was the draft of a treatment plan for which the principal provided a description of the school plan, including costs of individual security measures and the applied locations. The programme was very successful in reducing the number of offences (13 - 40%) and cost of crime (30 - 70%)<ref>This excepts the result of one particular school which dealt with an isolated crime occurrence of stolen computers during the programme evaluation.</ref> against relatively small investment costs between AUD 27,000 and AUD 49,000. One of the suggested security measures was ownership/territorial reinforcement in which not only staff and students are involved, but also the community through the School Watch Programme. Other measures were target hardening, surveillance, landscape management and lighting.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Mobility infrastructure is usually public, though private roads may exist, which is usually indicated with signs which prohibit entering for public users. Also companies often own a private parking area which is only accessible to employees and visitors of the company. This is usually regulated with a barrier with intercom at the entrance.<br />
<br />
Furthermore there can be made a distinction between public and private means of transport. The difference is usually clear (e.g. public buses and private cars), though in some cases it could be unclear if a taxi is an 'offical' public taxi or some private vehicle pretending to be a taxi. Especially in less developed countries (such as Indonesia), transport is offered by all sorts of vehicles ((mini)buses, taxis, becak, scooters) and many not regulated by offical public transport companies. It can be unclear if a bus is an 'official' bus and prices are not regulated. This will create a less safe environment for using public transport. This can be approved by making clear which are the 'official' bus- or taxi companies, e.g. using a uniform colour and published schedule and prices, or asking the taxi driver for a taxi permit or taxi with regulated taximeter.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Ownership-enhancing measures may incur [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Creating sense of ownership may in the final analysis contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be the case in a situation where increase in ownership in one community displaces crime to another community. It may furthermore the case that enhancement of ownership will be – unintendedly – at the expense of other groups of citizens, e.g. reducing their rights to movement, etc. <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] cosiderations include property rights and building codes, as well as the possible involvement of environmental regulations and legislation for stability of housing. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Ownership&diff=12556Measure type: Ownership2013-06-17T12:49:48Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Ownership''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by establishing an environment where there is a clear separation between public and private space.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Research<ref>Goldstein, Arnold P., ''Controlling Vandalism: The Person-Environment Duet'', School oriented interventions, pp 290-321</ref> has shown that a lack of ownership can act as a disinhibitor for certain crimes, as "Uncertainty of ownership can reduce responsibility and increase the likelihood of crime and anti-social behaviour going unchallenged". Ownership is described as "Places that promote a sense of ownership, respect, territorial responsibility and community".<br />
<br />
The level of ownership is expressed in a clear distinction between public, semi-private/communal and private space:<br />
# Will it be clear to users — including potential offenders and capable guardians — which space is public, communal, semi-private and private?<br />
# Are the boundaries between public, communal and private space signified in the most appropriate manner, be it a physical barrier or a psychological barrier such as changes in paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping and signage?<br />
# Will the place have an identity of its own?<br />
# Are all those who should feel ownership involved in defining the place’s identity?<br />
# Are barriers of a high quality of design in their detailing and appropriate to their local context?<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
[[Image:Wood fence.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Wood fence, indicating a clear distinction between public and private space. The open structure does not restrict surveillance,]]<br />
* Providing a clear demarcation between public and private territory by fences, paving, surface texture/colour, landscaping, planting and/or signage.<br />
* Increasing the felt level of responsibility for the environment by involving residents and users. This can be achieved in a number of ways, such as town centre management partnerships, tenant management organisations, community development trusts, regeneration programmes and management trusts<ref>Home Office, ''Safer Places. The planning system and crime prevention'', 2004</ref>.<br />
* Involving the community in the design of (parts of) communal spaces.<br />
* Increasing a sense of communality by using distinct and common design features, like colours or architecture.<br />
* Hiring of unemployed youths as subway vandalism inspectors.<br />
* "[http://www.acorp.uk.com/Station%20Adoption%20main.html Adopt-a-station]" antivandalism programs.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
The form of measures that are most suited to provide ownership depend on the location and use of the object. High fences and landscape that actively impede access are most appropriate in places that are vulnerable to crime, such as the back of dwellings. Lower barriers, hedges and bushes are also highly useful to signify the public/private divide.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning has an important role to play in facilitating the delineation of spaces and allowing the clear illustration of ownership, while also preserving the functionality, surveillance and (in some examples) permeability which is required of it. By making the concept of ownership clearly visible, the likelihood of criminal or anti-social behaviour can be reduced. In this way, it will be possible to ensure that such spaces retain a positive role within the overall urban fabric.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Wherever an increased sense of ownership leads to an increase in social cohesion, this may lead to an increased social concern to one another. This concern can lead to a decrease in security issues (by for example the public not accepting aggression to an fellow resident), or in safety issues (like people providing first aid to an injured fellow resident after an accident).<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Each city and community is distinct, with specific population characteristics, physical spaces, government structures, values and history. Each will thus have its particular security problems and public security cultures that co-determine whether urban design will be accepted by citizens and used appropriately. Ownership is a way to address this. <br />
<br />
The main [[Social aspects|social]] consideration behind the measure of ownership is that an individual and social sense of 'belonging to' and 'holding a share of', supported by favourable and attractive design of built infrastructure, increases citizens' preparedness, capability to respond, and resilience to crime, terrorism and disaster. Since vulnerability changes with the type of hazard,<ref>S. Schneiderbauer, D. Ehrlich: Social Levels and Hazard (In)dependence in Determining Vulnerability, in J. Birkmann (ed.): Measuring Vulnerability to Natural Hazards: Towards Disaster Resilient Societies, pp. 78-102 (p. 81).</ref> the measure of ownership is not a 'one size fits all' approach. <br />
<br />
The measures of ownership needs careful assesment and planning in order to be responsive to citizens' felt security needs. It will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience. Moreover, ownership-supporting built infrastructure may have negative impact on societal resilience: Research has shown, for example, that prominent protective built infrastructure (such as walls and fences) can make people to underestimate real risks and also makes them reluctant to adopt protective measures at individual and social levels, thus potentially undermining societal resilience.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> Furthermore, it must not be forgotten that resilience-enhancing measures are no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks.<ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> This means that the measure of ownership requires a [[comprehensive approach]]. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of the social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in planning and implementaion of the measure of ownership can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of ownership should include tests of usability social contexts. Suitable related methods that at the same time can promote citizens' sense of owenership, for example include [[Appreciative planning]] or [[Local open dialogue]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Privatising public space for security purposes does not necessarily imply that the involved actors also actually 'own' the specific urban object/environment in legal and financial terms. Increasing the involvement of residents and users with the help of regeneration programmes or "adoption"-programmes, for example, does not make these people the legal owner of the specific urban objects, but does increase the involvement of the members of a community. <br />
<br />
The costs of 'ownership' measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investment in design features or hiring unemployed youths. <br />
In addition, ownership generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perceived security in an area (less crime is good for business). Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned 'ownership' measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the surveillance measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]?<br />
<br />
''Case example: Cost-effective security programmes for schools''<br />
{{quote|The Department of Education and Training in Western Australia initiated in 1999 a successful security risk management programme helping school principals to evaluate existing security measures and determine cost-effective levels of security to meet the risks faced by their schools <ref>[http://www.oecd.org/education/country-studies/centreforeffectivelearningenvironmentscele/38162484.pdf OECD (2007). ''School Security Assessment Programme in Australia.''PEB Exchange 2007/3 ISSN 1609-7548]</ref>. Part of this assessment was the draft of a treatment plan for which the principal provided a description of the school plan, including costs of individual security measures and the applied locations. The programme was very successful in reducing the number of offences (13 - 40%) and cost of crime (30 - 70%)<ref>This excepts the result of one particular school which dealt with an isolated crime occurrence of stolen computers during the programme evaluation.</ref> against relatively small investment costs between AUD 27,000 and AUD 49,000. One of the suggested security measures was ownership/territorial reinforcement in which not only staff and students are involved, but also the community through the School Watch Programme. Other measures were target hardening, surveillance, landscape management and lighting.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Mobility infrastructure is usually public, though private roads may exist, which is usually indicated with signs which prohibit entering for public users.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Ownership-enhancing measures may incur [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Creating sense of ownership may in the final analysis contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be the case in a situation where increase in ownership in one community displaces crime to another community. It may furthermore the case that enhancement of ownership will be – unintendedly – at the expense of other groups of citizens, e.g. reducing their rights to movement, etc. <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] cosiderations include property rights and building codes, as well as the possible involvement of environmental regulations and legislation for stability of housing. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Deflection&diff=12555Measure type: Deflection2013-06-17T12:41:04Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Deflection''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by creating circumstances that direct criminals to less critical objects or redirects the motivational causes into non-criminal means of expression.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Urinal Fly.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A fly drawn in a urinal, a deflection measure to prevent visitors from aiming at other 'targets']]This is the channelling of potentially criminal or aggressive behaviour in more pro-social directions by means of architectural, equipment, and related alterations.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Provision of graffiti boards and mural programs where graffiti artist may legally express themselves<br />
* Interesting wallpaper, daily newspaper, chalkboard on bathroom wall<br />
* Providing activity centres, sport halls or skateboard terrains for potentially loitering youth<br />
* Separating incompatible public by designing some areas to appeal to only one group and other areas to the other group<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
As this measure does not actually reduce crime, but rather directs the crime to less critical targets, the measure is best suited for crimes that are (more or less) acceptable in specific places, such as vandalism or graffiti. For more serious crimes that would be unacceptable in any circumstance, this measure is not applicable.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
The use of deflection methods, which encourage responsible use of urban spaces by providing a suitable outlet for activities which would otherwise take place in an anti-social manner, is becoming an important tool for urban planners. Urban planners have, in this way, been able to facilitate the protection of urban spaces which would otherwise be the target of such criminal or anti-social activities. From a planning perspective, it is important to ensure that facilities which are designed to accommodate deflection are seen as a more attractive option than those that would otherwise be used, resulting in criminal or anti-social behaviour.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Before redirecting crime to another target one should be well aware of the possible consequences for that new target and its surroundings. For example, opening a skateboard park to get rid of loitering youth can cause inconvenience at the skateboard park due to the noise of rolling skateboards, an increase of vandalism in the surroundings or harassments in the bus to and from the skateboard park.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Deflection may result in displacing risk and hazard from one urban area to another. The measure should be assessed in the broader contexct of the public interest. While the public interest is a question of continuous debate, both in its general principles and case-by-case applications, it requires a conscientiously held view of the policies and actions that best serve the entire community. An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of the measure of deflection to citizens' felt security needs. Measures will only be responsive if they are based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. <br />
<br />
Deflecting risk is no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks. <ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref><br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they relate to the measure of deflection can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of deflection should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. I suitable method is for example [[Appreciative planning]], which helps work out shared and consensual perspectives on security aspects in the urban planning. process;<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Deflection mitigates the chance of a security threat, but at the same time demands some kind of investment in time, capital and effort by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of deflection contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments and investments in activity centres, sport halls or graffiti boards. In addition, deflection measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] due to its effect on society (e.g. less fear and crime is good for local business and consumer confidence).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, deflection can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, deflection is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these measures demand larger investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
The road network can be designed in such a way that areas where visiting people or vehicles are not wanted will attract less traffic, for example to make the roads to these areas less attractive (lower speed limit, speed bumps etc.). Or, the other way around, by providing good and easily accessible roads between the origin/destination pairs that have to accommodate a lot of traffic. Also ''green waves'' (successive intersections where the green times are tuned such that drivers will experience successive green traffic lights on their route) can be established on these roads, while larger red times on intersections can be used to make other routes less attractive.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Deflection may involve risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties, separation of powers, and endorsement of checks and balances). Deflection may also come with [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Architectural alterations to support deflection can contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be, for example, the case in a situation where deflection in some area displaces crime to another community. This illustrates the need to provide norms and standards beyond frameworks for built infrastructure<br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing measures of deflection, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Deflection&diff=12554Measure type: Deflection2013-06-17T12:40:31Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Deflection''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by creating circumstances that direct criminals to less critical objects or redirects the motivational causes into non-criminal means of expression.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Urinal Fly.JPG|thumb|right|300px|A fly drawn in a urinal, a deflection measure to prevent visitors from aiming at other 'targets']]This is the channelling of potentially criminal or aggressive behaviour in more pro-social directions by means of architectural, equipment, and related alterations.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Provision of graffiti boards and mural programs where graffiti artist may legally express themselves<br />
* Interesting wallpaper, daily newspaper, chalkboard on bathroom wall<br />
* Providing activity centres, sport halls or skateboard terrains for potentially loitering youth<br />
* Separating incompatible public by designing some areas to appeal to only one group and other areas to the other group<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
As this measure does not actually reduce crime, but rather directs the crime to less critical targets, the measure is best suited for crimes that are (more or less) acceptable in specific places, such as vandalism or graffiti. For more serious crimes that would be unacceptable in any circumstance, this measure is not applicable.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
The use of deflection methods, which encourage responsible use of urban spaces by providing a suitable outlet for activities which would otherwise take place in an anti-social manner, is becoming an important tool for urban planners. Urban planners have, in this way, been able to facilitate the protection of urban spaces which would otherwise be the target of such criminal or anti-social activities. From a planning perspective, it is important to ensure that facilities which are designed to accommodate deflection are seen as a more attractive option than those that would otherwise be used, resulting in criminal or anti-social behaviour.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Before redirecting crime to another target one should be well aware of the possible consequences for that new target and its surroundings. For example, opening a skateboard park to get rid of loitering youth can cause inconvenience at the skateboard park due to the noise of rolling skateboards, an increase of vandalism in the surroundings or harassments in the bus to and from the skateboard park.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Deflection may result in displacing risk and hazard from one urban area to another. The measure should be assessed in the broader contexct of the public interest. While the public interest is a question of continuous debate, both in its general principles and case-by-case applications, it requires a conscientiously held view of the policies and actions that best serve the entire community. An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of the measure of deflection to citizens' felt security needs. Measures will only be responsive if they are based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. <br />
<br />
Deflecting risk is no substitute for continuously confronting citizens with risks, how to assess risks, and how to prepare for realization of risks. <ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref><br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they relate to the measure of deflection can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of deflection should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. I suitable method is for example [[Appreciative planning]], which helps work out shared and consensual perspectives on security aspects in the urban planning. process;<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Deflection mitigates the chance of a security threat, but at the same time demands some kind of investment in time, capital and effort by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of deflection contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments and investments in activity centres, sport halls or graffiti boards. In addition, deflection measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] due to its effect on society (e.g. less fear and crime is good for local business and consumer confidence).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, deflection can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, deflection is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these measures demand larger investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
The road network can be designed in such a way that areas where visiting people or vehicles are not wanted will attract less traffic, for example to make the roads to these areas less attractive (lower speed limit, speed bumps etc.). Or, the other way around, by analysing number of trips per origin/destination pair and providing good and easily accessible roads between the origin/destination pairs that have to accommodate a lot of traffic. Also ''green waves'' (successive intersections where the green times are tuned such that drivers will experience successive green traffic lights on their route) can be established on these roads, while larger red times on intersections can be used to make other routes less attractive.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Deflection may involve risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties, separation of powers, and endorsement of checks and balances). Deflection may also come with [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Architectural alterations to support deflection can contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be, for example, the case in a situation where deflection in some area displaces crime to another community. This illustrates the need to provide norms and standards beyond frameworks for built infrastructure<br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing measures of deflection, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Maintenance&diff=12553Measure type: Maintenance2013-06-17T12:31:51Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Measure]]'''Maintenance''' is the [[measure]] of discouraging crime by designing places with management and maintenance in mind.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Research has shown that a lack of maintenance can act as a disinhibitor for certain crimes. A lack of maintenance over the environment can be seen as "a signal that there is little or no surveillance over an area, that there is little or no social authority exerting control over an area, and that consequently deviant behaviour may be tolerated"<ref>Wolfe Mary K., Mennis Jeremy, ''Does vegetation encourage or suppress urban crime? Evidence from Philadelphia, PA'', Landscape and Urban Planning 108 (2012) 112– 122</ref>.<br />
<br />
Whereas the maintenance itself is usually not a concern of the urban planner, the design for easy maintenance (including repair) is.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Coated walls for easy removal of graffiti<br />
* Modular street furniture that can quickly be replaced or repaired if damaged<br />
* Street designed for mechanized cleaning, i.e. wide enough and without inaccessible nooks and crannies<br />
* Greenery chosen for easy maintenance<br />
* Design of the public space to support maintenance, such as providing easy access for maintenance (e.g. support for cleaning of windows on higher floors), preventing wind corners where debris might gather, designing traffic flows to prevent litter in inaccessible places.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
Designing for easy maintenance can be most effectively implemented in cooperation with the persons or organisations responsible for this maintenance.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
The maintainability of urban spaces should be an important element in the decision making process for developments which pass through the urban planning system. This system can be used to ensure that appropriate measures are in place which will guarantee sufficient upkeep is both possible and takes place, in order to prevent areas of dilapidation or neglect, and to present an image of a well cared for and therefore well surveilled location.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
One should be careful to provide easy access for maintenance indiscriminately, as this might result in criminals (burglars, vandals) misusing this to facilitate their crimes. <br />
<br />
A lack of maintenance can lead to unsafe situations (such as sharp edges being exposed) and an increase in vulnerability (such as mouldered door posts which are easy to break).[[Image:Vandalised picnic table - geograph.org.uk - 782295.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Vandalised picnic table, showing sharp edges and unsafe for use]] By designing for easy maintenance, these risks can be minimized, as repairs can be executed quickly. <br />
<br />
By assuring a well-maintained public space, the risk of bad maintenance working as an incentive to other crimes can be avoided.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
The main [[Social aspects|social]] consideration behind the measure of maintenance is the "broken windows" paradigm<ref>G Kelling, C Coles: Fixing Broken Windows: Restoring Order and Reducing Crime in Our Communities. New York: Free Press, 1996.</ref> that comes from cummunity policing. It is based on the experience that when a broken window in a building is left unrepaired, soon all the windows in that buliding are broken. The generalized lesson is that minor crime causes fear and creates a perception of disorder and insecurity. Reversely, close maintenance can prevent those perceptions from rising. <br />
<br />
However, maintenance alone does not change [[security culture]]s or the overall setting of urban environments. It should therefore be considered that over-maintenance could have negative impact on societal resilience. For example, research has shown that visible strong protective built infrastructure makes people to underestimate real risks and also makes them reluctant to adopt protective measures at individual and social levels, thus potentially undermining societal resilience. <ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they relate to the measure of maintenance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure should include usability tests in relevant social contexts. This can be supported by citizen participation methods such as the [[Safety audit]] or [[Appreciative planning]], that among other things focus on collecting and integrating perspectives in multicultural environments.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Urban objects generate annual expenditures such as building services, utilities, repairs and maintenance. On the benefit side, maintenance extends the economic life of assets, has a positive environmental impact, improves social aspects like employee well-being, and mitigates crime and vandalism (also referred to as positive [[External effects|externalities]]). In addition, asset maintenance creates [[secondary economic impact]] due to the re-spending of maintenance fees by maintenance workers, contractors, etc.<br />
<br />
Whether extra focus on maintenance in order to increase security makes sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors and is case dependent (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment). One should first of all compare the potential cost-benefits with other alternatives. Secondly, one has to take in account which parties are affected by the increase in maintenance, who is paying for it and last but not least, how the envisioned measures adjust the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]].<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] such as the [[social cost-benefit analysis]] (first question) and [[Economic Impact Study|economic impact study]] (second question) can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Maintenance of mobility structures mainly concerns road maintenance.<br />
Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute <ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road#Maintenance</ref>.<br />
<br />
Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some parts of the United Kingdom the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones.[33] Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). <br />
<br />
Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies use pavement management techniques to continually monitor road conditions and schedule preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong the lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced agencies monitor the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial Profilometers. These measurements include road curvature, cross slope, asperity, roughness, rutting and texture. This data is fed into a pavement management system, which recommends the best maintenance or construction treatment to correct the damage that has occurred.<br />
<br />
Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro-milling and surface treatments. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity. <ref>^ "Thin Surfacing - Effective Way of Improving Road Safety within Scarce Road Maintenance Budget" (PDF). Paper for presentation at the 2005 Annual Conference of the Transportation Association of Canada in Calgary, Alberta. Transportation Association of Canada. 2005. Archived from the original on 2008-04-07. Retrieved 2007-05-14.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Design for easy maintenance may incur [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Creating built urban infrastructure that facilitates maintenance can contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be, for example, the case in a situation where increase in maintenance in some area displaces crime to another community. <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Main [[Legal aspects|legal]] aspects to consider include city and building codes, as well as general health and safety requirements. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Maintenance&diff=12552Measure type: Maintenance2013-06-17T12:29:26Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Measure]]'''Maintenance''' is the [[measure]] of discouraging crime by designing places with management and maintenance in mind.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Research has shown that a lack of maintenance can act as a disinhibitor for certain crimes. A lack of maintenance over the environment can be seen as "a signal that there is little or no surveillance over an area, that there is little or no social authority exerting control over an area, and that consequently deviant behaviour may be tolerated"<ref>Wolfe Mary K., Mennis Jeremy, ''Does vegetation encourage or suppress urban crime? Evidence from Philadelphia, PA'', Landscape and Urban Planning 108 (2012) 112– 122</ref>.<br />
<br />
Whereas the maintenance itself is usually not a concern of the urban planner, the design for easy maintenance (including repair) is.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Coated walls for easy removal of graffiti<br />
* Modular street furniture that can quickly be replaced or repaired if damaged<br />
* Street designed for mechanized cleaning, i.e. wide enough and without inaccessible nooks and crannies<br />
* Greenery chosen for easy maintenance<br />
* Design of the public space to support maintenance, such as providing easy access for maintenance (e.g. support for cleaning of windows on higher floors), preventing wind corners where debris might gather, designing traffic flows to prevent litter in inaccessible places.<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary| Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism| Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Graffiti| Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
Designing for easy maintenance can be most effectively implemented in cooperation with the persons or organisations responsible for this maintenance.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
The maintainability of urban spaces should be an important element in the decision making process for developments which pass through the urban planning system. This system can be used to ensure that appropriate measures are in place which will guarantee sufficient upkeep is both possible and takes place, in order to prevent areas of dilapidation or neglect, and to present an image of a well cared for and therefore well surveilled location.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
One should be careful to provide easy access for maintenance indiscriminately, as this might result in criminals (burglars, vandals) misusing this to facilitate their crimes. <br />
<br />
A lack of maintenance can lead to unsafe situations (such as sharp edges being exposed) and an increase in vulnerability (such as mouldered door posts which are easy to break).[[Image:Vandalised picnic table - geograph.org.uk - 782295.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Vandalised picnic table, showing sharp edges and unsafe for use]] By designing for easy maintenance, these risks can be minimized, as repairs can be executed quickly. <br />
<br />
By assuring a well-maintained public space, the risk of bad maintenance working as an incentive to other crimes can be avoided.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
The main [[Social aspects|social]] consideration behind the measure of maintenance is the "broken windows" paradigm<ref>G Kelling, C Coles: Fixing Broken Windows: Restoring Order and Reducing Crime in Our Communities. New York: Free Press, 1996.</ref> that comes from cummunity policing. It is based on the experience that when a broken window in a building is left unrepaired, soon all the windows in that buliding are broken. The generalized lesson is that minor crime causes fear and creates a perception of disorder and insecurity. Reversely, close maintenance can prevent those perceptions from rising. <br />
<br />
However, maintenance alone does not change [[security culture]]s or the overall setting of urban environments. It should therefore be considered that over-maintenance could have negative impact on societal resilience. For example, research has shown that visible strong protective built infrastructure makes people to underestimate real risks and also makes them reluctant to adopt protective measures at individual and social levels, thus potentially undermining societal resilience. <ref> Dennis S. Mileti/John H. Sorensen: Communication of Emergency Public Warnings. A Social Science Perspective and State-of-the-Art Assessment. Oak Ridge, TN: Oak Ridge National Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, 1990.</ref> <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they relate to the measure of maintenance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure should include usability tests in relevant social contexts. This can be supported by citizen participation methods such as the [[Safety audit]] or [[Appreciative planning]], that among other things focus on collecting and integrating perspectives in multicultural environments.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Urban objects generate annual expenditures such as building services, utilities, repairs and maintenance. On the benefit side, maintenance extends the economic life of assets, has a positive environmental impact, improves social aspects like employee well-being, and mitigates crime and vandalism (also referred to as positive [[External effects|externalities]]). In addition, asset maintenance creates [[secondary economic impact]] due to the re-spending of maintenance fees by maintenance workers, contractors, etc.<br />
<br />
Whether extra focus on maintenance in order to increase security makes sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors and is case dependent (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment). One should first of all compare the potential cost-benefits with other alternatives. Secondly, one has to take in account which parties are affected by the increase in maintenance, who is paying for it and last but not least, how the envisioned measures adjust the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]].<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] such as the [[social cost-benefit analysis]] (first question) and [[Economic Impact Study|economic impact study]] (second question) can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Maintenance of mobility structures mainly concerns road maintenance.<br />
Like all structures, roads deteriorate over time. Deterioration is primarily due to accumulated damage from vehicles, however environmental effects such as frost heaves, thermal cracking and oxidation often contribute <ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Road#Maintenance</ref>.<br />
<br />
Pavements are designed for an expected service life or design life. In some parts of the United Kingdom the standard design life is 40 years for new bitumen and concrete pavement. Maintenance is considered in the whole life cost of the road with service at 10, 20 and 30 year milestones.[33] Roads can be and are designed for a variety of lives (8-, 15-, 30-, and 60-year designs). <br />
<br />
Virtually all roads require some form of maintenance before they come to the end of their service life. Pro-active agencies use pavement management techniques to continually monitor road conditions and schedule preventive maintenance treatments as needed to prolong the lifespan of their roads. Technically advanced agencies monitor the road network surface condition with sophisticated equipment such as laser/inertial Profilometers. These measurements include road curvature, cross slope, asperity, roughness, rutting and texture. This data is fed into a pavement management system, which recommends the best maintenance or construction treatment to correct the damage that has occurred.<br />
<br />
Maintenance treatments for asphalt concrete generally include thin asphalt overlays, crack sealing, surface rejuvenating, fog sealing, micro-milling and surface treatments. Thin surfacing preserves, protects and improves the functional condition of the road while reducing the need for routing maintenance, leading to extended service life without increasing structural capacity.[38] <ref>^ "Thin Surfacing - Effective Way of Improving Road Safety within Scarce Road Maintenance Budget" (PDF). Paper for presentation at the 2005 Annual Conference of the Transportation Association of Canada in Calgary, Alberta. Transportation Association of Canada. 2005. Archived from the original on 2008-04-07. Retrieved 2007-05-14.</ref><br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Design for easy maintenance may incur [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues of distributive justice, such as risks of reifying uneven distribution of security in society. Creating built urban infrastructure that facilitates maintenance can contribute to selective delivery of security, making some groups of citizens more secure, and other groups of citizens more vulnerable. This may be, for example, the case in a situation where increase in maintenance in some area displaces crime to another community. <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific ethics aspects in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Main [[Legal aspects|legal]] aspects to consider include city and building codes, as well as general health and safety requirements. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Facilitating_compliance&diff=12551Measure type: Facilitating compliance2013-06-17T11:42:44Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Facilitating compliance''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by decreasing crime by making it easier for the public to behave according to the local rules.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The idea behind facilitating compliance is to reduce circumstances that might be used as excuse for committing crimes. For example, not having public waste bins might be used as an excuse for littering, long lines as excuse to get in without paying or a dilapidated appearance as an excuse for vandalism.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Providing ample waste bins<br />
* Providing 'graffiti boards' where messages can legally be painted<br />
* Providing public urinals<br />
* Using [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road.<br />
* Providing taxi stops in bar district to prevent driving under influence<br />
* Rehabilitation programs for addicts<br />
* Ensuring a adequate level of [[Measure: Maintenance| maintenance]]<br />
* Making clear rules are monitored and acted upon[[Image:Welsh bilingual cycling sign 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sign in Wales indicating a prohibition to bicycle and at the same time that these rules are monitored and acted upon.]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
When taken right, measures to facilitate compliance can be quite natural and subtle to the public and be seen as an extra service rather than as a restriction. One should realize the limitation of this measure though, as it primarily targets the 'opportunity crimes' and it will therefore be better suited to low-level crimes like antisocial behaviour, graffiti and vandalism and less suited to the higher-level crimes. <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Through efficient and effective urban planning, instances of poor quality urban spaces or dilapidated environmental conditions can be minimised. Good quality, well designed and functional urban spaces, which have a well defined role within the overall urban fabric are less likely to feature high levels of crime or anti-social behaviour or other issues which can bring with them risks to the general public who utilise such spaces.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance can both be used to serve security and safety goals; warning people for dangerous situations and informing them about a requirement to use hard hats in a construction area is an example of the latter. As the measure of facilitating compliance does not impose new rules, but only provides incentives and support to voluntarily uphold existing rules, this measure has no side effects.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] of facilitating compliance is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. In general, it is not easy to address citizens by built infrastructure in order – for example – to influence their behaviour in using that infrastructure. The reason for this is that – among other things due to [[culture aspects]] – citizens ‘read’ built urban environment in different ways: One central tenet in [[environmental psychology]] is that meaning intentionally embodied in built environment is not always decoded by citizens according to that intention. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they apply to facilitating compliance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of facilitating compliance should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. Suitable methods to assess the appropriateness of the measure of facilitating compliance from the citizen point of view, and that can also help supporting implementation of the measue, include [[Planning for Real]]. This helps assess risks and how to address it, giving emphasis on cultural contexts. The method at the same time aims at creating conducive contexts for security-enhancing cooperation among among neighbours, experts and local interest groups.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance (see the case example below) mitigates the chance of a security threat. There are however costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of facilitating compliance contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments in public urinals, rehabilitation programmes for addicts, waste bins, etc. In addition, facilitating compliance measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perception of security in an area that translates itself in economic outcome (e.g. more consumer confidence, an impulse for local business and trade, etc.).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: Fake security systems''<br />
{{quote|With the help of fake security systems (camera's, signs, dog warnings, etc.) one can create the impression of a monitored secure asset without the high investment and maintenance costs of the real version. This kind of security is all about perceived security.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
In terms of benefit-cost ratio, facilitating compliance can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, facilitating compliance is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these kind of measures demand larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are several possibilites to facilitate compliance of traffic. As written above, this can be done using measures for [[measure: Directing traffic flows|directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road. <br />
<br />
One of the principles of the Dutch approach ''Sustainable Safety'' is predictability, which is a means of facilitating compliance as well. As explained in <ref name="duurzaamveilig">http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/</ref>, road design should be so consistent that road users instantly understand what they can expect and what is expected of them on a certain type of street or road. The road design itself gives information about the type of road/street. If the street is paved with bricks, there are parked cars and the street is shared with cyclists and gives access to homes, the road user will instantly know and feel this is a 30km/h (19mph) local access street. However, if the road has two carriageways separated by a median, there is no parking and cyclists have their own cycle paths, it is clear to the road user that this is a through road.<br />
<br />
Another principal of the Sustainable Safety approach is ''Forgivingness''; Humans make errors and willingly or unwillingly break rules. This is a given that cannot be changed. So roads and streets should be designed in such a way that this natural human behavior does not lead to crashes and injuries. An example is a shoulder with a semi-hard pavement. A road user coming off the main road will not crash immediately; the semi-hard shoulder will give this road user the ability to get back to the main carriageway. The equivalent for cyclists is a curb with a different angle; 45 degrees in stead of 90 degrees. Hitting this curb with your front wheel will not immediately result in a fall. Forgivingness towards other road users is enhanced when road design leads to a predictable behavior of road users. A result of this principle is that motorized traffic sometimes gives priority to cyclists even if they don’t have it. Because it is so clear where the cyclists want or need to go the motorist anticipates their behavior and gives the cyclist more room than he or she is legally obliged to, often to the surprise of especially foreign cyclists <ref name="duurzaamveilig"/>.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance first requires the selection of those areas and types of risk where compliance is sought to be facilitated. This involves [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues because limited resources will probably not allow addressing all relevant urban areas. This may lead to the creation of different levels of security in society. <br />
<br />
Therefore, investigating human and societal needs regarding target hardening should be a priority. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing of facilitation of compliance, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Facilitating_compliance&diff=12550Measure type: Facilitating compliance2013-06-17T11:42:14Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Facilitating compliance''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by decreasing crime by making it easier for the public to behave according to the local rules.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The idea behind facilitating compliance is to reduce circumstances that might be used as excuse for committing crimes. For example, not having public waste bins might be used as an excuse for littering, long lines as excuse to get in without paying or a dilapidated appearance as an excuse for vandalism.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Providing ample waste bins<br />
* Providing 'graffiti boards' where messages can legally be painted<br />
* Providing public urinals<br />
* Using [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road.<br />
* Providing taxi stops in bar district to prevent driving under influence<br />
* Rehabilitation programs for addicts<br />
* Ensuring a adequate level of [[Measure: Maintenance| maintenance]]<br />
* Making clear rules are monitored and acted upon[[Image:Welsh bilingual cycling sign 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sign in Wales indicating a prohibition to bicycle and at the same time that these rules are monitored and acted upon.]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
When taken right, measures to facilitate compliance can be quite natural and subtle to the public and be seen as an extra service rather than as a restriction. One should realize the limitation of this measure though, as it primarily targets the 'opportunity crimes' and it will therefore be better suited to low-level crimes like antisocial behaviour, graffiti and vandalism and less suited to the higher-level crimes. <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Through efficient and effective urban planning, instances of poor quality urban spaces or dilapidated environmental conditions can be minimised. Good quality, well designed and functional urban spaces, which have a well defined role within the overall urban fabric are less likely to feature high levels of crime or anti-social behaviour or other issues which can bring with them risks to the general public who utilise such spaces.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance can both be used to serve security and safety goals; warning people for dangerous situations and informing them about a requirement to use hard hats in a construction area is an example of the latter. As the measure of facilitating compliance does not impose new rules, but only provides incentives and support to voluntarily uphold existing rules, this measure has no side effects.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] of facilitating compliance is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. In general, it is not easy to address citizens by built infrastructure in order – for example – to influence their behaviour in using that infrastructure. The reason for this is that – among other things due to [[culture aspects]] – citizens ‘read’ built urban environment in different ways: One central tenet in [[environmental psychology]] is that meaning intentionally embodied in built environment is not always decoded by citizens according to that intention. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they apply to facilitating compliance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of facilitating compliance should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. Suitable methods to assess the appropriateness of the measure of facilitating compliance from the citizen point of view, and that can also help supporting implementation of the measue, include [[Planning for Real]]. This helps assess risks and how to address it, giving emphasis on cultural contexts. The method at the same time aims at creating conducive contexts for security-enhancing cooperation among among neighbours, experts and local interest groups.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance (see the case example below) mitigates the chance of a security threat. There are however costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of facilitating compliance contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments in public urinals, rehabilitation programmes for addicts, waste bins, etc. In addition, facilitating compliance measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perception of security in an area that translates itself in economic outcome (e.g. more consumer confidence, an impulse for local business and trade, etc.).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: Fake security systems''<br />
{{quote|With the help of fake security systems (camera's, signs, dog warnings, etc.) one can create the impression of a monitored secure asset without the high investment and maintenance costs of the real version. This kind of security is all about perceived security.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
In terms of benefit-cost ratio, facilitating compliance can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, facilitating compliance is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these kind of measures demand larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are several possibilites to facilitate compliance of traffic. As written above, this can be done using measures for [[measure: Directing traffic flows|directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road. <br />
<br />
One of the principles of the Dutch approach ''Sustainable Safety'' is predictability, which is a means of facilitating compliance as well. As explained in <ref name="duurzaamveilig">http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/</ref>, road design should be so consistent that road users instantly understand what they can expect and what is expected of them on a certain type of street or road. The road design itself gives information about the type of road/street. If the street is paved with bricks, there are parked cars and the street is shared with cyclists and gives access to homes, the road user will instantly know and feel this is a 30km/h (19mph) local access street. However, if the road has two carriageways separated by a median, there is no parking and cyclists have their own cycle paths, it is clear to the road user that this is a through road.<br />
<br />
Another principal of the Sustainable Safety approach is ''Forgivingness''; Humans make errors and willingly or unwillingly break rules. This is a given that cannot be changed. So roads and streets should be designed in such a way that this natural human behavior does not lead to crashes and injuries. An example is a shoulder with a semi-hard pavement. A road user coming off the main road will not crash immediately; the semi-hard shoulder will give this road user the ability to get back to the main carriageway. The equivalent for cyclists is a curb with a different angle; 45 degrees in stead of 90 degrees. Hitting this curb with your front wheel will not immediately result in a fall. Forgivingness towards other road users is enhanced when road design leads to a predictable behavior of road users. A result of this principle is that motorized traffic sometimes gives priority to cyclists even if they don’t have it. Because it is so clear where the cyclists want or need to go the motorist anticipates their behavior and gives the cyclist more room than he or she is legally obliged to, often to the surprise of especially foreign cyclists <ref name="duurzaamveilig">.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance first requires the selection of those areas and types of risk where compliance is sought to be facilitated. This involves [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues because limited resources will probably not allow addressing all relevant urban areas. This may lead to the creation of different levels of security in society. <br />
<br />
Therefore, investigating human and societal needs regarding target hardening should be a priority. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing of facilitation of compliance, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Facilitating_compliance&diff=12549Measure type: Facilitating compliance2013-06-17T11:41:22Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Facilitating compliance''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by decreasing crime by making it easier for the public to behave according to the local rules.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The idea behind facilitating compliance is to reduce circumstances that might be used as excuse for committing crimes. For example, not having public waste bins might be used as an excuse for littering, long lines as excuse to get in without paying or a dilapidated appearance as an excuse for vandalism.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Providing ample waste bins<br />
* Providing 'graffiti boards' where messages can legally be painted<br />
* Providing public urinals<br />
* Using [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road.<br />
* Providing taxi stops in bar district to prevent driving under influence<br />
* Rehabilitation programs for addicts<br />
* Ensuring a adequate level of [[Measure: Maintenance| maintenance]]<br />
* Making clear rules are monitored and acted upon[[Image:Welsh bilingual cycling sign 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sign in Wales indicating a prohibition to bicycle and at the same time that these rules are monitored and acted upon.]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
When taken right, measures to facilitate compliance can be quite natural and subtle to the public and be seen as an extra service rather than as a restriction. One should realize the limitation of this measure though, as it primarily targets the 'opportunity crimes' and it will therefore be better suited to low-level crimes like antisocial behaviour, graffiti and vandalism and less suited to the higher-level crimes. <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Through efficient and effective urban planning, instances of poor quality urban spaces or dilapidated environmental conditions can be minimised. Good quality, well designed and functional urban spaces, which have a well defined role within the overall urban fabric are less likely to feature high levels of crime or anti-social behaviour or other issues which can bring with them risks to the general public who utilise such spaces.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance can both be used to serve security and safety goals; warning people for dangerous situations and informing them about a requirement to use hard hats in a construction area is an example of the latter. As the measure of facilitating compliance does not impose new rules, but only provides incentives and support to voluntarily uphold existing rules, this measure has no side effects.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] of facilitating compliance is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. In general, it is not easy to address citizens by built infrastructure in order – for example – to influence their behaviour in using that infrastructure. The reason for this is that – among other things due to [[culture aspects]] – citizens ‘read’ built urban environment in different ways: One central tenet in [[environmental psychology]] is that meaning intentionally embodied in built environment is not always decoded by citizens according to that intention. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they apply to facilitating compliance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of facilitating compliance should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. Suitable methods to assess the appropriateness of the measure of facilitating compliance from the citizen point of view, and that can also help supporting implementation of the measue, include [[Planning for Real]]. This helps assess risks and how to address it, giving emphasis on cultural contexts. The method at the same time aims at creating conducive contexts for security-enhancing cooperation among among neighbours, experts and local interest groups.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance (see the case example below) mitigates the chance of a security threat. There are however costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of facilitating compliance contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments in public urinals, rehabilitation programmes for addicts, waste bins, etc. In addition, facilitating compliance measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perception of security in an area that translates itself in economic outcome (e.g. more consumer confidence, an impulse for local business and trade, etc.).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: Fake security systems''<br />
{{quote|With the help of fake security systems (camera's, signs, dog warnings, etc.) one can create the impression of a monitored secure asset without the high investment and maintenance costs of the real version. This kind of security is all about perceived security.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
In terms of benefit-cost ratio, facilitating compliance can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, facilitating compliance is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these kind of measures demand larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are several possibilites to facilitate compliance of traffic. As written above, this can be done using measures for [[measure: Directing traffic flows|directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road. <br />
<br />
One of the principles of the Dutch approach ''Sustainable Safety'' is predictability, which is a means of facilitating compliance as well. As explained in <ref> name="duurzaamveilig" http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/</ref>, road design should be so consistent that road users instantly understand what they can expect and what is expected of them on a certain type of street or road. The road design itself gives information about the type of road/street. If the street is paved with bricks, there are parked cars and the street is shared with cyclists and gives access to homes, the road user will instantly know and feel this is a 30km/h (19mph) local access street. However, if the road has two carriageways separated by a median, there is no parking and cyclists have their own cycle paths, it is clear to the road user that this is a through road.<br />
<br />
Another principal of the Sustainable Safety approach is ''Forgivingness''; Humans make errors and willingly or unwillingly break rules. This is a given that cannot be changed. So roads and streets should be designed in such a way that this natural human behavior does not lead to crashes and injuries. An example is a shoulder with a semi-hard pavement. A road user coming off the main road will not crash immediately; the semi-hard shoulder will give this road user the ability to get back to the main carriageway. The equivalent for cyclists is a curb with a different angle; 45 degrees in stead of 90 degrees. Hitting this curb with your front wheel will not immediately result in a fall. Forgivingness towards other road users is enhanced when road design leads to a predictable behavior of road users. A result of this principle is that motorized traffic sometimes gives priority to cyclists even if they don’t have it. Because it is so clear where the cyclists want or need to go the motorist anticipates their behavior and gives the cyclist more room than he or she is legally obliged to, often to the surprise of especially foreign cyclists <ref>name="duurzaamveilig"</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance first requires the selection of those areas and types of risk where compliance is sought to be facilitated. This involves [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues because limited resources will probably not allow addressing all relevant urban areas. This may lead to the creation of different levels of security in society. <br />
<br />
Therefore, investigating human and societal needs regarding target hardening should be a priority. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing of facilitation of compliance, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Facilitating_compliance&diff=12548Measure type: Facilitating compliance2013-06-17T11:38:44Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Facilitating compliance''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by decreasing crime by making it easier for the public to behave according to the local rules.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The idea behind facilitating compliance is to reduce circumstances that might be used as excuse for committing crimes. For example, not having public waste bins might be used as an excuse for littering, long lines as excuse to get in without paying or a dilapidated appearance as an excuse for vandalism.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Providing ample waste bins<br />
* Providing 'graffiti boards' where messages can legally be painted<br />
* Providing public urinals<br />
* Using [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road.<br />
* Providing taxi stops in bar district to prevent driving under influence<br />
* Rehabilitation programs for addicts<br />
* Ensuring a adequate level of [[Measure: Maintenance| maintenance]]<br />
* Making clear rules are monitored and acted upon[[Image:Welsh bilingual cycling sign 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sign in Wales indicating a prohibition to bicycle and at the same time that these rules are monitored and acted upon.]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
When taken right, measures to facilitate compliance can be quite natural and subtle to the public and be seen as an extra service rather than as a restriction. One should realize the limitation of this measure though, as it primarily targets the 'opportunity crimes' and it will therefore be better suited to low-level crimes like antisocial behaviour, graffiti and vandalism and less suited to the higher-level crimes. <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Through efficient and effective urban planning, instances of poor quality urban spaces or dilapidated environmental conditions can be minimised. Good quality, well designed and functional urban spaces, which have a well defined role within the overall urban fabric are less likely to feature high levels of crime or anti-social behaviour or other issues which can bring with them risks to the general public who utilise such spaces.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance can both be used to serve security and safety goals; warning people for dangerous situations and informing them about a requirement to use hard hats in a construction area is an example of the latter. As the measure of facilitating compliance does not impose new rules, but only provides incentives and support to voluntarily uphold existing rules, this measure has no side effects.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] of facilitating compliance is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. In general, it is not easy to address citizens by built infrastructure in order – for example – to influence their behaviour in using that infrastructure. The reason for this is that – among other things due to [[culture aspects]] – citizens ‘read’ built urban environment in different ways: One central tenet in [[environmental psychology]] is that meaning intentionally embodied in built environment is not always decoded by citizens according to that intention. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they apply to facilitating compliance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of facilitating compliance should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. Suitable methods to assess the appropriateness of the measure of facilitating compliance from the citizen point of view, and that can also help supporting implementation of the measue, include [[Planning for Real]]. This helps assess risks and how to address it, giving emphasis on cultural contexts. The method at the same time aims at creating conducive contexts for security-enhancing cooperation among among neighbours, experts and local interest groups.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance (see the case example below) mitigates the chance of a security threat. There are however costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of facilitating compliance contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments in public urinals, rehabilitation programmes for addicts, waste bins, etc. In addition, facilitating compliance measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perception of security in an area that translates itself in economic outcome (e.g. more consumer confidence, an impulse for local business and trade, etc.).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: Fake security systems''<br />
{{quote|With the help of fake security systems (camera's, signs, dog warnings, etc.) one can create the impression of a monitored secure asset without the high investment and maintenance costs of the real version. This kind of security is all about perceived security.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
In terms of benefit-cost ratio, facilitating compliance can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, facilitating compliance is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these kind of measures demand larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are several possibilites to facilitate compliance of traffic. As written above, this can be done using measures for [[measure: Directing traffic flows|directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road. <br />
<br />
One of the principles of the Dutch approach ''Sustainable Safety'' is predictability, which is a means of facilitating compliance as well. As explained in <ref>http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/</ref>, road design should be so consistent that road users instantly understand what they can expect and what is expected of them on a certain type of street or road. The road design itself gives information about the type of road/street. If the street is paved with bricks, there are parked cars and the street is shared with cyclists and gives access to homes, the road user will instantly know and feel this is a 30km/h (19mph) local access street. However, if the road has two carriageways separated by a median, there is no parking and cyclists have their own cycle paths, it is clear to the road user that this is a through road.<br />
<br />
Another principal of the Sustainable Safety approach is ''Forgivingness''; Humans make errors and willingly or unwillingly break rules. This is a given that cannot be changed. So roads and streets should be designed in such a way that this natural human behavior does not lead to crashes and injuries. An example is a shoulder with a semi-hard pavement. A road user coming off the main road will not crash immediately; the semi-hard shoulder will give this road user the ability to get back to the main carriageway. The equivalent for cyclists is a curb with a different angle; 45 degrees in stead of 90 degrees. Hitting this curb with your front wheel will not immediately result in a fall. Forgivingness towards other road users is enhanced when road design leads to a predictable behavior of road users. A result of this principle is that motorized traffic sometimes gives priority to cyclists even if they don’t have it. Because it is so clear where the cyclists want or need to go the motorist anticipates their behavior and gives the cyclist more room than he or she is legally obliged to, often to the surprise of especially foreign cyclists <ref>http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/</ref>.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance first requires the selection of those areas and types of risk where compliance is sought to be facilitated. This involves [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues because limited resources will probably not allow addressing all relevant urban areas. This may lead to the creation of different levels of security in society. <br />
<br />
Therefore, investigating human and societal needs regarding target hardening should be a priority. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing of facilitation of compliance, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Facilitating_compliance&diff=12547Measure type: Facilitating compliance2013-06-17T11:37:12Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Facilitating compliance''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by decreasing crime by making it easier for the public to behave according to the local rules.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The idea behind facilitating compliance is to reduce circumstances that might be used as excuse for committing crimes. For example, not having public waste bins might be used as an excuse for littering, long lines as excuse to get in without paying or a dilapidated appearance as an excuse for vandalism.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Providing ample waste bins<br />
* Providing 'graffiti boards' where messages can legally be painted<br />
* Providing public urinals<br />
* Using [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road.<br />
* Providing taxi stops in bar district to prevent driving under influence<br />
* Rehabilitation programs for addicts<br />
* Ensuring a adequate level of [[Measure: Maintenance| maintenance]]<br />
* Making clear rules are monitored and acted upon[[Image:Welsh bilingual cycling sign 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sign in Wales indicating a prohibition to bicycle and at the same time that these rules are monitored and acted upon.]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
When taken right, measures to facilitate compliance can be quite natural and subtle to the public and be seen as an extra service rather than as a restriction. One should realize the limitation of this measure though, as it primarily targets the 'opportunity crimes' and it will therefore be better suited to low-level crimes like antisocial behaviour, graffiti and vandalism and less suited to the higher-level crimes. <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Through efficient and effective urban planning, instances of poor quality urban spaces or dilapidated environmental conditions can be minimised. Good quality, well designed and functional urban spaces, which have a well defined role within the overall urban fabric are less likely to feature high levels of crime or anti-social behaviour or other issues which can bring with them risks to the general public who utilise such spaces.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance can both be used to serve security and safety goals; warning people for dangerous situations and informing them about a requirement to use hard hats in a construction area is an example of the latter. As the measure of facilitating compliance does not impose new rules, but only provides incentives and support to voluntarily uphold existing rules, this measure has no side effects.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] of facilitating compliance is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. In general, it is not easy to address citizens by built infrastructure in order – for example – to influence their behaviour in using that infrastructure. The reason for this is that – among other things due to [[culture aspects]] – citizens ‘read’ built urban environment in different ways: One central tenet in [[environmental psychology]] is that meaning intentionally embodied in built environment is not always decoded by citizens according to that intention. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they apply to facilitating compliance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of facilitating compliance should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. Suitable methods to assess the appropriateness of the measure of facilitating compliance from the citizen point of view, and that can also help supporting implementation of the measue, include [[Planning for Real]]. This helps assess risks and how to address it, giving emphasis on cultural contexts. The method at the same time aims at creating conducive contexts for security-enhancing cooperation among among neighbours, experts and local interest groups.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance (see the case example below) mitigates the chance of a security threat. There are however costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of facilitating compliance contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments in public urinals, rehabilitation programmes for addicts, waste bins, etc. In addition, facilitating compliance measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perception of security in an area that translates itself in economic outcome (e.g. more consumer confidence, an impulse for local business and trade, etc.).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: Fake security systems''<br />
{{quote|With the help of fake security systems (camera's, signs, dog warnings, etc.) one can create the impression of a monitored secure asset without the high investment and maintenance costs of the real version. This kind of security is all about perceived security.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
In terms of benefit-cost ratio, facilitating compliance can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, facilitating compliance is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these kind of measures demand larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are several possibilites to facilitate compliance of traffic. As written above, this can be done using measures for [[Directing traffic flows|directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road. <br />
<br />
One of the principles of the Dutch approach ''Sustainable Safety'' is predictability, which is a means of facilitating compliance as well. As explained in <ref>http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/</ref>, road design should be so consistent that road users instantly understand what they can expect and what is expected of them on a certain type of street or road. The road design itself gives information about the type of road/street. If the street is paved with bricks, there are parked cars and the street is shared with cyclists and gives access to homes, the road user will instantly know and feel this is a 30km/h (19mph) local access street. However, if the road has two carriageways separated by a median, there is no parking and cyclists have their own cycle paths, it is clear to the road user that this is a through road.<br />
<br />
Another principal of the Sustainable Safety approach is '''Forgivingness''; Humans make errors and willingly or unwillingly break rules. This is a given that cannot be changed. So roads and streets should be designed in such a way that this natural human behavior does not lead to crashes and injuries. An example is a shoulder with a semi-hard pavement. A road user coming off the main road will not crash immediately; the semi-hard shoulder will give this road user the ability to get back to the main carriageway. The equivalent for cyclists is a curb with a different angle; 45 degrees in stead of 90 degrees. Hitting this curb with your front wheel will not immediately result in a fall. Forgivingness towards other road users is enhanced when road design leads to a predictable behavior of road users. A result of this principle is that motorized traffic sometimes gives priority to cyclists even if they don’t have it. Because it is so clear where the cyclists want or need to go the motorist anticipates their behavior and gives the cyclist more room than he or she is legally obliged to, often to the surprise of especially foreign cyclists.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance first requires the selection of those areas and types of risk where compliance is sought to be facilitated. This involves [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues because limited resources will probably not allow addressing all relevant urban areas. This may lead to the creation of different levels of security in society. <br />
<br />
Therefore, investigating human and societal needs regarding target hardening should be a priority. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing of facilitation of compliance, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Facilitating_compliance&diff=12546Measure type: Facilitating compliance2013-06-17T11:36:19Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Facilitating compliance''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by decreasing crime by making it easier for the public to behave according to the local rules.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The idea behind facilitating compliance is to reduce circumstances that might be used as excuse for committing crimes. For example, not having public waste bins might be used as an excuse for littering, long lines as excuse to get in without paying or a dilapidated appearance as an excuse for vandalism.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Providing ample waste bins<br />
* Providing 'graffiti boards' where messages can legally be painted<br />
* Providing public urinals<br />
* Using [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road.<br />
* Providing taxi stops in bar district to prevent driving under influence<br />
* Rehabilitation programs for addicts<br />
* Ensuring a adequate level of [[Measure: Maintenance| maintenance]]<br />
* Making clear rules are monitored and acted upon[[Image:Welsh bilingual cycling sign 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sign in Wales indicating a prohibition to bicycle and at the same time that these rules are monitored and acted upon.]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
When taken right, measures to facilitate compliance can be quite natural and subtle to the public and be seen as an extra service rather than as a restriction. One should realize the limitation of this measure though, as it primarily targets the 'opportunity crimes' and it will therefore be better suited to low-level crimes like antisocial behaviour, graffiti and vandalism and less suited to the higher-level crimes. <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Through efficient and effective urban planning, instances of poor quality urban spaces or dilapidated environmental conditions can be minimised. Good quality, well designed and functional urban spaces, which have a well defined role within the overall urban fabric are less likely to feature high levels of crime or anti-social behaviour or other issues which can bring with them risks to the general public who utilise such spaces.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance can both be used to serve security and safety goals; warning people for dangerous situations and informing them about a requirement to use hard hats in a construction area is an example of the latter. As the measure of facilitating compliance does not impose new rules, but only provides incentives and support to voluntarily uphold existing rules, this measure has no side effects.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] of facilitating compliance is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. In general, it is not easy to address citizens by built infrastructure in order – for example – to influence their behaviour in using that infrastructure. The reason for this is that – among other things due to [[culture aspects]] – citizens ‘read’ built urban environment in different ways: One central tenet in [[environmental psychology]] is that meaning intentionally embodied in built environment is not always decoded by citizens according to that intention. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they apply to facilitating compliance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of facilitating compliance should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. Suitable methods to assess the appropriateness of the measure of facilitating compliance from the citizen point of view, and that can also help supporting implementation of the measue, include [[Planning for Real]]. This helps assess risks and how to address it, giving emphasis on cultural contexts. The method at the same time aims at creating conducive contexts for security-enhancing cooperation among among neighbours, experts and local interest groups.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance (see the case example below) mitigates the chance of a security threat. There are however costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of facilitating compliance contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments in public urinals, rehabilitation programmes for addicts, waste bins, etc. In addition, facilitating compliance measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perception of security in an area that translates itself in economic outcome (e.g. more consumer confidence, an impulse for local business and trade, etc.).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: Fake security systems''<br />
{{quote|With the help of fake security systems (camera's, signs, dog warnings, etc.) one can create the impression of a monitored secure asset without the high investment and maintenance costs of the real version. This kind of security is all about perceived security.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
In terms of benefit-cost ratio, facilitating compliance can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, facilitating compliance is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these kind of measures demand larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are several possibilites to facilitate compliance of traffic. As written above, this can be done using measures for [[Directing traffic flows|directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road. <br />
<br />
One of the principles of the Dutch approach ''Sustainable Safety'' is predictability, which is a means of facilitating compliance as well. As explained in </ref> http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/ <ref>, road design should be so consistent that road users instantly understand what they can expect and what is expected of them on a certain type of street or road. The road design itself gives information about the type of road/street. If the street is paved with bricks, there are parked cars and the street is shared with cyclists and gives access to homes, the road user will instantly know and feel this is a 30km/h (19mph) local access street. However, if the road has two carriageways separated by a median, there is no parking and cyclists have their own cycle paths, it is clear to the road user that this is a through road.<br />
<br />
Another principal of the Sustainable Safety approach is '''Forgivingness''; Humans make errors and willingly or unwillingly break rules. This is a given that cannot be changed. So roads and streets should be designed in such a way that this natural human behavior does not lead to crashes and injuries. An example is a shoulder with a semi-hard pavement. A road user coming off the main road will not crash immediately; the semi-hard shoulder will give this road user the ability to get back to the main carriageway. The equivalent for cyclists is a curb with a different angle; 45 degrees in stead of 90 degrees. Hitting this curb with your front wheel will not immediately result in a fall. Forgivingness towards other road users is enhanced when road design leads to a predictable behavior of road users. A result of this principle is that motorized traffic sometimes gives priority to cyclists even if they don’t have it. Because it is so clear where the cyclists want or need to go the motorist anticipates their behavior and gives the cyclist more room than he or she is legally obliged to, often to the surprise of especially foreign cyclists.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance first requires the selection of those areas and types of risk where compliance is sought to be facilitated. This involves [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues because limited resources will probably not allow addressing all relevant urban areas. This may lead to the creation of different levels of security in society. <br />
<br />
Therefore, investigating human and societal needs regarding target hardening should be a priority. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing of facilitation of compliance, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Facilitating_compliance&diff=12545Measure type: Facilitating compliance2013-06-17T11:35:49Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Facilitating compliance''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by decreasing crime by making it easier for the public to behave according to the local rules.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
The idea behind facilitating compliance is to reduce circumstances that might be used as excuse for committing crimes. For example, not having public waste bins might be used as an excuse for littering, long lines as excuse to get in without paying or a dilapidated appearance as an excuse for vandalism.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Providing ample waste bins<br />
* Providing 'graffiti boards' where messages can legally be painted<br />
* Providing public urinals<br />
* Using [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road.<br />
* Providing taxi stops in bar district to prevent driving under influence<br />
* Rehabilitation programs for addicts<br />
* Ensuring a adequate level of [[Measure: Maintenance| maintenance]]<br />
* Making clear rules are monitored and acted upon[[Image:Welsh bilingual cycling sign 2.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Sign in Wales indicating a prohibition to bicycle and at the same time that these rules are monitored and acted upon.]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid| Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
When taken right, measures to facilitate compliance can be quite natural and subtle to the public and be seen as an extra service rather than as a restriction. One should realize the limitation of this measure though, as it primarily targets the 'opportunity crimes' and it will therefore be better suited to low-level crimes like antisocial behaviour, graffiti and vandalism and less suited to the higher-level crimes. <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Through efficient and effective urban planning, instances of poor quality urban spaces or dilapidated environmental conditions can be minimised. Good quality, well designed and functional urban spaces, which have a well defined role within the overall urban fabric are less likely to feature high levels of crime or anti-social behaviour or other issues which can bring with them risks to the general public who utilise such spaces.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance can both be used to serve security and safety goals; warning people for dangerous situations and informing them about a requirement to use hard hats in a construction area is an example of the latter. As the measure of facilitating compliance does not impose new rules, but only provides incentives and support to voluntarily uphold existing rules, this measure has no side effects.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] of facilitating compliance is the responsiveness of this measure to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if it is based on identification of citizens’ self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and their relation to/interaction with resilience-enhancing measures centred on built infrastructure. In general, it is not easy to address citizens by built infrastructure in order – for example – to influence their behaviour in using that infrastructure. The reason for this is that – among other things due to [[culture aspects]] – citizens ‘read’ built urban environment in different ways: One central tenet in [[environmental psychology]] is that meaning intentionally embodied in built environment is not always decoded by citizens according to that intention. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] as they apply to facilitating compliance can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of facilitating compliance should include tests of usability in relevant social contexts. Suitable methods to assess the appropriateness of the measure of facilitating compliance from the citizen point of view, and that can also help supporting implementation of the measue, include [[Planning for Real]]. This helps assess risks and how to address it, giving emphasis on cultural contexts. The method at the same time aims at creating conducive contexts for security-enhancing cooperation among among neighbours, experts and local interest groups.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance (see the case example below) mitigates the chance of a security threat. There are however costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of facilitating compliance contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent) such as investments in public urinals, rehabilitation programmes for addicts, waste bins, etc. In addition, facilitating compliance measures generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] related to the perception of security in an area that translates itself in economic outcome (e.g. more consumer confidence, an impulse for local business and trade, etc.).<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: Fake security systems''<br />
{{quote|With the help of fake security systems (camera's, signs, dog warnings, etc.) one can create the impression of a monitored secure asset without the high investment and maintenance costs of the real version. This kind of security is all about perceived security.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
In terms of benefit-cost ratio, facilitating compliance can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Hence, facilitating compliance is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. In general, these kind of measures demand larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
There are several possibilites to facilitate compliance of traffic. As written above, this can be done using measures for [[Directing traffic flows|directing traffic flows]] to ease right and discourage wrong behaviour, like one-way turnstiles to discourage using an exit for entry or clear signs indicating the preferred route around a closed or one-way road. <br />
<br />
One of the principles of the Dutch approach ''Sustainable Safety'' is predictability, which is a means of facilitating compliance as well. As explained in </ref>http://bicycledutch.wordpress.com/2012/01/02/sustainable-safety/<ref>>, road design should be so consistent that road users instantly understand what they can expect and what is expected of them on a certain type of street or road. The road design itself gives information about the type of road/street. If the street is paved with bricks, there are parked cars and the street is shared with cyclists and gives access to homes, the road user will instantly know and feel this is a 30km/h (19mph) local access street. However, if the road has two carriageways separated by a median, there is no parking and cyclists have their own cycle paths, it is clear to the road user that this is a through road.<br />
<br />
Another principal of the Sustainable Safety approach is '''Forgivingness''; Humans make errors and willingly or unwillingly break rules. This is a given that cannot be changed. So roads and streets should be designed in such a way that this natural human behavior does not lead to crashes and injuries. An example is a shoulder with a semi-hard pavement. A road user coming off the main road will not crash immediately; the semi-hard shoulder will give this road user the ability to get back to the main carriageway. The equivalent for cyclists is a curb with a different angle; 45 degrees in stead of 90 degrees. Hitting this curb with your front wheel will not immediately result in a fall. Forgivingness towards other road users is enhanced when road design leads to a predictable behavior of road users. A result of this principle is that motorized traffic sometimes gives priority to cyclists even if they don’t have it. Because it is so clear where the cyclists want or need to go the motorist anticipates their behavior and gives the cyclist more room than he or she is legally obliged to, often to the surprise of especially foreign cyclists.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Facilitating compliance first requires the selection of those areas and types of risk where compliance is sought to be facilitated. This involves [[Ethics aspects|ethics]] issues because limited resources will probably not allow addressing all relevant urban areas. This may lead to the creation of different levels of security in society. <br />
<br />
Therefore, investigating human and societal needs regarding target hardening should be a priority. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Major [[Legal aspects|legal aspects]] include balancing of facilitation of compliance, that may be seen as compulsory to some extent, with freedom to act and other fundamental rights. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Controlling_disinhibitors&diff=12544Measure type: Controlling disinhibitors2013-06-17T10:01:55Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Controlling disinhibitors''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by removing or regulating disinhibiting substances or circumstances.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Disinhibitors can be defined as substances or circumstances that decrease the inhibitions of an offender to commit crimes. Studies<ref>Greenfield, Lawrence A, ''Alcohol and crime, and analysis of national data on the pravalence of alcohol involvement in crime'', prepared for the Assistant Attorney General's National symposium on alcohol abuse and crim, April5-7, 1998, Washington D.C.</ref> have shown that drugs, but above all alcohol are conductive to some forms of crime<ref>About 1 in 3 convicted offender had been drinking alcohol at the time of their crime.</ref>, particularly violent crimes.<br />
<br />
It should be noted that not only behaviour-altering substances can influence natural inhibitions, but for instance untidy environments or environments in disrepair can stimulate vandalism and other crimes.[[Image:One of York's less scenic spots - geograph.org.uk - 1130246.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cluttered, untidy and unstructured spots attract crime]]<br />
<br />
Also, environmental conditions, like overly high temperatures in crowds or gatherings, can affect the public's mood and decrease inhibitions to aggressive behaviour.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* School restroom thermostats kept at 62°F<br />
* Repainting of playground equipment in bright colours<br />
* Beautification programs (e.g., landscaping, painting, maintenance)<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
In controlling disinhibitors one should be aware that at least part of the people will actively seek circumstances that will diminish their inhibitions. Any measure taken to control disinhibitors should be planned to include alternative sources of disinhibitors: early closing hours for the bars will not suffice if people can bring their own alcohol to alternative locations and 'party on'.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Poorly planned urban spaces can have an instrumental role in the disinhibition of anti-social or criminal behaviour. In this situation, urban planning must be used to limit the incidences of poor quality urban spaces through the encouragement of good quality urban areas which can function as an inhibitor to criminal or anti-social activities.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Disinhibitors will not only affect the behaviour of people regarding criminal behaviour, but rather their behaviour in general. This means that controlling disinhibitors will generally not only affect security, but also safety: when people are more in control of their actions, accidents as a result of reckless driving or driving under influence will decrease as well as injuries as a result of rowdy behaviour or loss of balance due to intoxication.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of the measure of controlling dishiibitors to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens' self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and felt security gaps. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in security-related urban planning can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of controlling disinhibitors should include usabiltiy tests in relevant social contexts. A practical method to support social considerations in planning for controlling of disinhibitors is, for example, the [[Safety audit]], which focuses on local and context-specific solutions to address security issues.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors (see example below) deters and mitigates security threats. There are, however, costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). ''Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas''. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of controlling disinhibitors contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: A statistical analysis of bar closing hours:''<br />
{{quote|A Scandinavian study on the impact of small changes in bar closing hours on violence concluded that "each additional 1-hour extension to the opening times of premises is associated with a 16% increase in violent crime"<ref>Rossow, I., T Noström (2011). ''The impact of small changes in bar closing hours on violence. The Norwegian experience from 18 cities''. Society for the Study of Addiction.</ref>. Combined with the cost of an average violent event, one could relatively easily determine the socio-economic benefits of a decrease in opening hours as a measure to control disinhibitors. In order to determine the cost-effectiveness, though, one should for example include the decrease in revenues by commercial venues due to the limited opening hours, the lost of customers for taxi drivers, and so on.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, controlling disinhibitors can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth (2009). ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Since controlling disinhibitors belongs to the [[designing out approach]], and is an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], it is a compelx measure that in general demands larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors can have a positive effect on driving behaviour and therefore on traffic. For example, if alcohol use can be reduced, [[Traffic safety|traffic safety]] will be increased. Also creating a pleasant environment can improve the mood of drivers and their driver behaviour.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Since not all disinhibitors have a criminal quality in themselves, removing motivators may in some cases involve a risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties). <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific [[Ethics aspects|ethics aspects]] in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
A prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] consideration is the tight to deny substances to people and how this may interfere, for example, with the fundamental right of freedom of action. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Controlling_disinhibitors&diff=12543Measure type: Controlling disinhibitors2013-06-17T10:00:19Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Controlling disinhibitors''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by removing or regulating disinhibiting substances or circumstances.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Disinhibitors can be defined as substances or circumstances that decrease the inhibitions of an offender to commit crimes. Studies<ref>Greenfield, Lawrence A, ''Alcohol and crime, and analysis of national data on the pravalence of alcohol involvement in crime'', prepared for the Assistant Attorney General's National symposium on alcohol abuse and crim, April5-7, 1998, Washington D.C.</ref> have shown that drugs, but above all alcohol are conductive to some forms of crime<ref>About 1 in 3 convicted offender had been drinking alcohol at the time of their crime.</ref>, particularly violent crimes.<br />
<br />
It should be noted that not only behaviour-altering substances can influence natural inhibitions, but for instance untidy environments or environments in disrepair can stimulate vandalism and other crimes.[[Image:One of York's less scenic spots - geograph.org.uk - 1130246.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Cluttered, untidy and unstructured spots attract crime]]<br />
<br />
Also, environmental conditions, like overly high temperatures in crowds or gatherings, can affect the public's mood and decrease inhibitions to aggressive behaviour.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* School restroom thermostats kept at 62°F<br />
* Repainting of playground equipment in bright colours<br />
* Beautification programs (e.g., landscaping, painting, maintenance)<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
In controlling disinhibitors one should be aware that at least part of the people will actively seek circumstances that will diminish their inhibitions. Any measure taken to control disinhibitors should be planned to include alternative sources of disinhibitors: early closing hours for the bars will not suffice if people can bring their own alcohol to alternative locations and 'party on'.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Poorly planned urban spaces can have an instrumental role in the disinhibition of anti-social or criminal behaviour. In this situation, urban planning must be used to limit the incidences of poor quality urban spaces through the encouragement of good quality urban areas which can function as an inhibitor to criminal or anti-social activities.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Disinhibitors will not only affect the behaviour of people regarding criminal behaviour, but rather their behaviour in general. This means that controlling disinhibitors will generally not only affect security, but also safety: when people are more in control of their actions, accidents as a result of reckless driving or driving under influence will decrease as well as injuries as a result of rowdy behaviour or loss of balance due to intoxication.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors is an example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of social, economic, cultural and environmental aspects in urban design. An important [[Social aspects|social aspect]] is the responsiveness of the measure of controlling dishiibitors to citizens' felt security needs. The measure will only be responsive if based on identification of citizens' self-perceptions of vulnerability and resilience, and felt security gaps. <br />
<br />
Practical addressing of social aspects and aspects of [[security culture]] in security-related urban planning can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of controlling disinhibitors should include usabiltiy tests in relevant social contexts. A practical method to support social considerations in planning for controlling of disinhibitors is, for example, the [[Safety audit]], which focuses on local and context-specific solutions to address security issues.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors (see example below) deters and mitigates security threats. There are, however, costs involved with the improvement of urban security, also referred to as the "Costs of Mitigation"<ref>Source: Rose, A & S. Chatterjee (2011). ''Benefits and Costs of Counter-Terrorism Security Measures in Urban Areas''. Research sponsor: Department of Homeland Security: 6-7.</ref>, <br />
Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of controlling disinhibitors contains the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Case example: A statistical analysis of bar closing hours:''<br />
{{quote|A Scandinavian study on the impact of small changes in bar closing hours on violence concluded that "each additional 1-hour extension to the opening times of premises is associated with a 16% increase in violent crime"<ref>Rossow, I., T Noström (2011). ''The impact of small changes in bar closing hours on violence. The Norwegian experience from 18 cities''. Society for the Study of Addiction.</ref>. Combined with the cost of an average violent event, one could relatively easily determine the socio-economic benefits of a decrease in opening hours as a measure to control disinhibitors. In order to determine the cost-effectiveness, though, one should for example include the decrease in revenues by commercial venues due to the limited opening hours, the lost of customers for taxi drivers, and so on.}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, controlling disinhibitors can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth (2009). ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Since controlling disinhibitors belongs to the [[designing out approach]], and is an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], it is a compelx measure that in general demands larger initial investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Controlling disinhibitors can have a positive effect on driving behaviour and therefore on traffic. For example, if alcohol use can be reduced, [[Traffic Safety|traffic safety]] will be increased. Also creating a pleasant environment can improve the mood of drivers and their driver behaviour.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Since not all disinhibitors have a criminal quality in themselves, removing motivators may in some cases involve a risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties). <br />
<br />
In general, pinpointing specific [[Ethics aspects|ethics aspects]] in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
A prior [[Legal aspects|legal]] consideration is the tight to deny substances to people and how this may interfere, for example, with the fundamental right of freedom of action. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure:_Removal_of_crime_motivator&diff=12542Measure: Removal of crime motivator2013-06-17T09:41:58Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Removal of a crime motivator''' is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by removing the benefits of a crime.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
A crime motivator is an important reason of the offender to commit his or her crime. For a burglar, for instance this would be financial gain, a graffiti artist would like his work to be visible to the intended audience, a vandal likes a spectacular way of failing (like shattered glass) of or damage to the object and a terrorist would like his act to be widely advertised.<br />
<br />
The measure of removal of the crime motivator is directed at denying the offer the 'rewards' of his or her crime. For example, by removing the opportunity to sell stolen goods, the motivation for burglary can be removed.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Making goods unsellable by marking them[[Image:Codiertes Rad.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bicycle marked against theft]]<br />
* Constructing street furniture and street art out of invaluable materials, so stealing and selling the metal does not pay<br />
* Constructing vandalism-prone objects from materials that fail in non-spectacular fashions<br />
* Designing street furniture for rapid repair (for example by modular design)<br />
* Designing walls designed for rapid removal of graffiti (by for instance coating them)<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver">Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
There are no specific environmental conditions required to make removal of crime motivators effective, but a good removal of crime motivators measure does require a good understanding what motivates a perpetrator and some creativity to remove this aspect from the environment without impairing the function of the object (too much). <br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning can play an important role in the removal of crime motivators through the creation of places which feature high levels of passive surveillance, and limiting or removing spaces which are not overlooked or observed. This reduces or removes the opportunity for criminals to commit crimes within such locations, making them safer and more secure. The use of passive surveillance is more desirable than active surveillance methods, as not only are such places more cost effective to secure, but areas which feature a high proportion of active surveillance measures can become counterproductive in some instances by making such places oppressive in character.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
As long as safety functions of the concerned objects and materials are sufficiently considered, removal of crime motivators has no effects on safety and security.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
The removal of crime motivator is a perfect case example of the [[designing out approach]], or as an aspect of [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], which seeks a balanced consideration of [[Social aspects|social,]] economic, [[Culture aspects|cultural]] and environmental aspects in urban design. As such being a complex measure - although seeming an easy, "technical" solution -, it will only be effective and accepted by the public if it takes the existing [[security culture]] ínto account. This can best be accomplished by appropriately involving citizens, based on a set of introduced methods of [[citizen participation]] as compiled by VITRUV. Ideally, planning for the measure of removal of crime motivator should include usability test in relevant social contexts. An example of a specific practical method to accomplish this is the [[Safety audit]], which focuses on local and context-specific solutions to address security issues.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Removal of crime motivator (see the case example below) deters and prevents crime, but at the same time demands investments, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of measures like the removal of crime motivators contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs such as investments in coatings for wall (against graffiti) or the construction of vandalism-prone objects. In addition, the removal of crime motivator generates various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]] as the result of subsequent rounds of expenditure ('re-expenditures') of business companies, households and public authorities outside the security market. Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions (see also the [[Economic tools#Economic assessment step by step|'''flow chart''']] of an economic assessment):<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the envisioned measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures change/alter the behaviour of these agents, and, of course, the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
''Cost-effectiveness of removal of crime motivators aimed at criminal juveniles:''<br />
{{quote|"Many social and economic policies designed for other purposes may also reduce the incidence of serious crimes. Programs to encourage young people to remain in school, for example, have proved to be one of the most cost-effective crime-reduction strategies"(Greenwood, 2004)<ref>Greenwood, P. (2004). Cost-Effective Violence Prevention Through Targeted Family Interventions. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 1036: 201-214. In: Shapiro, J. and K.A. Hassett (2012). ''The Economic Benefits of Reducing Violent Crime. A Case Study of 8 American Cities'': 5</ref>. Another study by the Australian Institute of Criminology (1998)<ref>Weatherburn, D. & B. Lind (1998). ''Poverty, Parenting, Peers and Crime-Prone Neighbourhoods''. Australian Institute of Criminology. Trends & Issues in crime and criminal justice. No.85</ref> finds that economic and social disadvantages have a disruptive effect on parenting skills (in terms of neglect and abuse), causing juveniles to participate in criminal activities, especially in crime prone areas. Hence, the study conclude that long-term measures against juvenile crime aimed at improving parenting skills (e.g. by reducing the level of economic stress (poverty) or the introduction of family and child support programs) will contribute significantly to the reduction of juvenile crime, even though these benefits will not be realised as fast as in comparison to, for example, policing, which is mostly aimed at reducing the frequency of offences (and not so much the supply of motivated offenders).}}<br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). In terms of benefit-cost ratio, removal of crime motivator can be considered as a type of security measure which in a relatively subtle way increases security, in contrast to measures such as security guards, big concrete walls and barb wire that may be pervasive, but can also arouse feelings of fear and anxiety<ref>Coaffee, J., P. O’Hare, and M. Hawkesworth. ''The Visibility of (In)security: The Aesthetics of Planning Urban Defences Against Terrorism''. Security Dialogue 2009 40:489.</ref>. Since the removal of crime motivator is a measure that belongs to the [[designing out approach]], or to [[Sustainable design|sustainable design]], it is complex and demands larger investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Mobility is normally not affected by removal of crime motivators, since it will not affect the road infrastructure or the traffic demand.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
Since not all crime motivators have a criminal quality in themselves, removing motivators may in some cases involve a risk of departure from normal liberal democratic standards (such as protection of liberties). <br />
<br />
Pinpointing specific [[Ethics aspects|ethics aspects]] in resilience-enhancing measures needs to consider, among other things, citizen security cultures and citizens' personal concerns. There are no ethics considerations that can be planned or implemented without prior identification and addressing of citizens' perceptions. To support this, VITRUV offers a commented [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_ethics_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods to determine ethics aspects]] in relevant urban planning.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
Detailed [[Legal aspects|legal]] coverage of this measure is needed at the level of detail implications, e.g., splitting groups of people. VITRUV offers a [[Legal_aspects#Summary_table_of_legal_aspects_in_urban_planning|summary checklist]] and a [[Determination_of_security_aspects_-_methods_for_urban_planners#Methods_to_determine_legal_aspects_in_planning_of_public_spaces|list of methods]] to assess legal aspects in resilience-enhancing urban planning.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Target_removal&diff=11853Measure type: Target removal2013-05-08T07:49:45Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>Target removal is the [[measure]] of reducing risk by either removing the perceived attractive aspects from an [[attractive object]], or removing the object as a whole.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
If appropriately employed, target removal is one of most effective approaches to crime prevention<ref>[http://www.popcenter.org/library/crimeprevention/volume_01/01poyner.pdf Poyner, Barry, ''what works in crime prevention: an overview of evaluations'', crime prevention studies, 1993]</ref>, as it removes the object or subject suited to commit the crime to.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
* Removal of money-carrying devices such as pay phones from high-loitering areas[[Image:Pay-phone-TPE97.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Replacement of money pay phones by phones accepting only electronic payments can effectively reduce theft.]]<br />
* Omission of ground-level windows against vandalism<br />
* Concealing or placing out of reach of vulnerable parts<br />
* Using inlaid signs instead of mounted signs against vandalism<br />
* Removal of vandalism-prone street furniture, plants or fixtures or replacing them with less attractive targets<br />
* Removing people vulnerable for robbery and/or assault from high-risk locations by providing alternative routes or means of transport.<br />
* Removing masses as attractive target for fanatics by [[designing out]] crowds and busy places<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || <span style="color:silver">Destruction by riots</span>{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || <span style="color:silver">Destruction of property by fanatics</span>{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
There are no specific environmental conditions required to make target removal effective, but a good target removal measure does require a good understanding what makes a situation attractive for a perpetrator and some creativity to remove the attractiveness of a target without impairing the function of the object (too much).<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban planning must consider how groups which are particularly vulnerable to criminal acts (women, the elderly etc.) can be removed from high risk locations. This can mean removing any need for such groups to visit these places. For example bus stops should not be located in isolated areas where potential for entrapment is high. In addition, public facilities such as restrooms, benches and luggage lockers should not be placed in locations of poor visibility where people have the opportunity to loiter.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Some targets might serve a role in providing safety, such as fire extinguishers that are regularly vandalised. Removing these should be done only after considering their effect on safety.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
As described above, an example of target removal is removing people vulnerable for robbery and/or assault from high-risk locations by providing alternative routes or means of transport. For example, providing more means of public transport or new routes guiding around poor or dangerous areas.<br />
<br />
Another example, removing masses as attractive target for fanatics by designing out crowds and busy places, can be achieved by providing more open spaces and squares while avoiding areas/corners that cannot be overseen, or by making more areas of a city attractive by creating for example alternative shopping areas and places to go out in other parts of the city, including appropriate road and public transport means.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Intervention_force&diff=11852Measure type: Intervention force2013-05-07T16:34:36Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Economic]]<br />
[[Category:Ethics]]<br />
[[Category:Measure]]<br />
[[File:Festnahme_4_(ex3179)_sml.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Arrest of a protester in Hamburg]]Establishing a '''intervention force''' is the [[measure]] of having adequate resources (first responders) to react to emergencies in order to minimise impact and restore a normal situation as soon as possible. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
An intervention force is the last link in the reaction chain '''detection'''-'''perception'''-'''interpretation'''-'''formulating action'''-'''acting''' of the [[comprehensive approach]]. The essence of deploying an intervention force lies in intervening in an observed incident. This is done by way of first responders, who by their action minimize impact, restore the situation to normalcy and in general also take actions to facilitate the prosecution, if needed.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
Intervention forces can be officially appointed, ad-hoc, public or private. Examples of forms of intervention force are:<br />
* Police force<br />
* Army<br />
* Private security companies<br />
* Neighbourhood watches/other citizens initiatives<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
The effectiveness of a intervention force against crime lies in two effects:<br />
* the mitigating effect of authority present<br />
* the direct actions undertaken by the intervention force to mitigate the effects of an incident<br />
* make contributions to the prosecution of crime (gathering evidence and leads and arresting suspects)<br />
<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
!colspan="4"|Security issues<br />
|-<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots| Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
* For a intervention force to be effective, they need to be well aware of the situation; what parties are involved, in what way, what are their motives, goals, backgrounds and means, what has happened and where are the parties located.<br />
* In order to get this awareness, it is essential that the reaction chain is unbroken. As often the links in the reaction chain are managed by different people or organisations, the communication in this chain is of vital essence.<br />
* A timely arrival at the location of the incident is essential to keep the number of options to resolve the situation as open as possible; an incident can escalate very quickly, making gentler interventions impractical or impossible.<br />
<br />
The extent to which a intervention force can operate effectively in an urban context is dependent of:<br />
* The travel time to the incident. A short travel time from the place of deployment of the intervention force to the location of a (potential) incident. [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measures such as [[Incident management|incident management]] and [[Traffic management#Evacuation management|Evacuation management]] are vital for maintaining [[robustness|robustness]] in travel times to incidents.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Traditionally policing has been structured around an incident based approach to crime control, which is generally more reactive in nature. Dialogue should be facilitated and supported between crime control agents and urban development actors, particularly urban planners so that appropriate interventions can be employed to tackle crime from the design stage of developments and public space.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
The duration and impact of incidents can be minimized by applying proper [[Incident management|incident management]], which requires among others a good cooperation between the [[Incident management#Roles and responsibilities|agencies responsible for incident management]]. Incident management is used to reduce the time to detect and verify an incident occurrence; implement the appropriate response; and safely clear the incident, while managing the affected flow until full capacity is restored<ref>Traffic Incident Management Handbook, Prepared for: Federal Highway Administration,Office of Travel Management. Prepared by: PB Farradyne, November 2000</ref>.<br />
<br />
The publicity resulting from a large-scale deployment of intervention force can deteriorate the status of a neighbourhood, which can attract more crime.<br />
<br />
The use of violence in interventions can cause damage and injuries.<br />
<br />
Intervention forces can be highly flexible and therefore also perform as a means to provide safety. For instance, security officers might be knowledgeable in providing first aid.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
The deployment of intervention forces can lead to feelings of [[victimization]] on the side of the affected public.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Intervention forces are in most cases the responsibility of public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact]]. Although the costs of police services vary from country to country and include both [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Direct (primary) costs of security|direct]] and [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Indirect (secondary) costs of security|indirect]] costs, intervention forces are above all characterised by the permanent investments in training, equipment and salaries of the team members. Hence, intervention forces require more long-term investments than, for example, target hardening measures (i.e. toughened glass or concrete walls) or remote surveillance with the help of cameras<ref>Although also in the case of CCTV there are permanent costs due to e.g. the permanent monitoring of cameras</ref>.<br />
<br />
Being the first line of defence, public authorities annually spend billions on policing. There exist, nevertheless, relatively few rigorous studies by economists, political scientists, and criminal justice researchers on the impact of policing, and specifically the function as a intervention force. According to Levitt (2004)<ref>Levitt, S.D.(2004). Understanding why Crime fell in the 1990s; Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that do not. ''Journal of Economic Perspectives''--Volume 18, Number 1-pages 163-190.</ref>, until the start of this decade, most studies found an insignificant or negative correlation between the number of police forces and criminal offences. According to Levitt, however, this is due to the fact that these studies failed to account for the fact that policing does not only influences crime, but also the amount of crime influences the amount of policing. Correcting for this effect, more recent studies conclude that more police is associated with reductions in crime, and Levitt (2004)<ref>Ibid</ref> concludes that, based on a crude approximation, the effectiveness of policing from a [[Social cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit]] perspective is “attractive”, but should not be the sole focus to reduce crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
The deployment of a intervention force is a relatively expensive measure, as it needs to be maintained at all times in order to be deployable when needed.<br />
<br />
In the mobility field, many efforts have been put into the development of adequate [[Incident management|incident management]] procedures; in case of incidents, the aim is to get as quickly as possible the required emergency services (incl. police) at the place of the incident and clearing the road as fast as possible, in order to minimize the mobility effect for the other traffic.<br />
<br />
Generally, [[Accessibility|accessibility]] of risk sensitive locations should be guaranteed or made as good as possible in order to offer easy access for intervention forces in case of emergencies or other incidents.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Intervention_force&diff=11851Measure type: Intervention force2013-05-07T16:31:11Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Economic]]<br />
[[Category:Ethics]]<br />
[[Category:Measure]]<br />
[[File:Festnahme_4_(ex3179)_sml.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Arrest of a protester in Hamburg]]Establishing a '''intervention force''' is the [[measure]] of having adequate resources (first responders) to react to emergencies in order to minimise impact and restore a normal situation as soon as possible. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
An intervention force is the last link in the reaction chain '''detection'''-'''perception'''-'''interpretation'''-'''formulating action'''-'''acting''' of the [[comprehensive approach]]. The essence of deploying an intervention force lies in intervening in an observed incident. This is done by way of first responders, who by their action minimize impact, restore the situation to normalcy and in general also take actions to facilitate the prosecution, if needed.<br />
<br />
== Examples ==<br />
Intervention forces can be officially appointed, ad-hoc, public or private. Examples of forms of intervention force are:<br />
* Police force<br />
* Army<br />
* Private security companies<br />
* Neighbourhood watches/other citizens initiatives<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
The effectiveness of a intervention force against crime lies in two effects:<br />
* the mitigating effect of authority present<br />
* the direct actions undertaken by the intervention force to mitigate the effects of an incident<br />
* make contributions to the prosecution of crime (gathering evidence and leads and arresting suspects)<br />
<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
!colspan="4"|Security issues<br />
|-<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots| Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
* For a intervention force to be effective, they need to be well aware of the situation; what parties are involved, in what way, what are their motives, goals, backgrounds and means, what has happened and where are the parties located.<br />
* In order to get this awareness, it is essential that the reaction chain is unbroken. As often the links in the reaction chain are managed by different people or organisations, the communication in this chain is of vital essence.<br />
* A timely arrival at the location of the incident is essential to keep the number of options to resolve the situation as open as possible; an incident can escalate very quickly, making gentler interventions impractical or impossible.<br />
<br />
The extent to which a intervention force can operate effectively in an urban context is dependent of:<br />
* The travel time to the incident. A short travel time from the place of deployment of the intervention force to the location of a (potential) incident. [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measures such as [[Incident management|incident management]] and [[Traffic management#Evacuation management|Evacuation management]] are vital for maintaining [[robustness|robustness]] in travel times to incidents.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Traditionally policing has been structured around an incident based approach to crime control, which is generally more reactive in nature. Dialogue should be facilitated and supported between crime control agents and urban development actors, particularly urban planners so that appropriate interventions can be employed to tackle crime from the design stage of developments and public space.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
The duration and impact of incidents can be minimized by applying proper [[Incident management|incident management]], which requires among others a good cooperation between the [[Incident management#Roles and responsibilities|agencies responsible for incident management]]. Incident management is used to reduce the time to detect and verify an incident occurrence; implement the appropriate response; and safely clear the incident, while managing the affected flow until full capacity is restored<ref>Traffic Incident Management Handbook, Prepared for: Federal Highway Administration,Office of Travel Management. Prepared by: PB Farradyne, November 2000</ref>.<br />
<br />
The publicity resulting from a large-scale deployment of intervention force can deteriorate the status of a neighbourhood, which can attract more crime.<br />
<br />
The use of violence in interventions can cause damage and injuries.<br />
<br />
Intervention forces can be highly flexible and therefore also perform as a means to provide safety. For instance, security officers might be knowledgeable in providing first aid.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
The deployment of intervention forces can lead to feelings of [[victimization]] on the side of the affected public.<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Intervention forces are in most cases the responsibility of public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact]]. Although the costs of police services vary from country to country and include both [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Direct (primary) costs of security|direct]] and [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Indirect (secondary) costs of security|indirect]] costs, intervention forces are above all characterised by the permanent investments in training, equipment and salaries of the team members. Hence, intervention forces require more long-term investments than, for example, target hardening measures (i.e. toughened glass or concrete walls) or remote surveillance with the help of cameras<ref>Although also in the case of CCTV there are permanent costs due to e.g. the permanent monitoring of cameras</ref>.<br />
<br />
Being the first line of defence, public authorities annually spend billions on policing. There exist, nevertheless, relatively few rigorous studies by economists, political scientists, and criminal justice researchers on the impact of policing, and specifically the function as a intervention force. According to Levitt (2004)<ref>Levitt, S.D.(2004). Understanding why Crime fell in the 1990s; Four Factors that Explain the Decline and Six that do not. ''Journal of Economic Perspectives''--Volume 18, Number 1-pages 163-190.</ref>, until the start of this decade, most studies found an insignificant or negative correlation between the number of police forces and criminal offences. According to Levitt, however, this is due to the fact that these studies failed to account for the fact that policing does not only influences crime, but also the amount of crime influences the amount of policing. Correcting for this effect, more recent studies conclude that more police is associated with reductions in crime, and Levitt (2004)<ref>Ibid</ref> concludes that, based on a crude approximation, the effectiveness of policing from a [[Social cost-benefit analysis|cost-benefit]] perspective is “attractive”, but should not be the sole focus to reduce crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
The deployment of a intervention force is a relatively expensive measure, as it needs to be maintained at all times in order to be deployable when needed.<br />
<br />
In the mobility field, many efforts have been put into the development of adequate [[Incident mangement|incident management]] procedures; in case of incidents, the aim is to get as quickly as possible the required emergency services at the place of the incident and clearing the road as fast as possible, in order to minimize the mobility effect for the other traffic.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Surveillance&diff=11849Measure type: Surveillance2013-05-07T16:23:22Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Economic]]<br />
[[Category:Ethics]]<br />
[[Category:Measure]]<br />
[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[Category:Social]]<br />
'''Surveillance''' is the [[measure]] of monitoring the behaviour, activities, or other changing information, usually of people for the purpose of influencing, managing, directing, or protecting.<ref>[[wikipedia:Surveillance]]</ref><br />
<br />
[[Traffic management#Traffic monitoring|Monitoring of traffic]] is a related activity which can be used for general [[Traffic management|traffic management]] or [[Traffic management#Incident management|incident management]].<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Surveillance is the first step in the reaction chain '''detection'''-'''perception'''-'''interpretation'''-'''formulating action'''-'''acting'''. The essence of surveillance lies in the detection of the actual situation. This can be done in various ways:<br />
* by dedicated observers on location<br />
* remotely by dedicated observers<br />
* by the public<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
===By dedicated observers on location===<br />
[[File:UDPolice1.jpg|thumb|right|Police officer on surveillance]]Observation of the situation by dedicated observers on location can be done either by observers that are incognito, or observers that are clearly distinguishable. Both strategies have their advantages:<br />
* observation by observers that are incognito can reveal the situation in its natural behaviour, undisturbed by the fact that it is observed. This can reveal behaviour (and its causes) that otherwise remain undetected.<br />
* observation by observers that are clearly distinguishable can convey the presence of authority and exert a mitigating effect on the behaviour of the observed.<br />
<br />
===Remotely by dedicated observers===<br />
[[File:Surveillance_cameras.jpg|thumb|right|Security cameras in the street]]Monitoring with the help of cameras (CCTV) has become a common method throughout all Europe to combat crime and terrorism. In the UK more than 4 million cameras have been installed (The Associated Press, 2007).<br />
<br />
===By the public===<br />
[[File:Amber_Alert_SMS.jpg|thumb|right|Example of an Amber Alert SMS]]This concerns involving (a select part of) the public in the detection of crime. This can both be facilitated by electronic means and more traditional means. Examples of both approaches can be found in:<br />
* The USA 'Eagle Eyes' initiative of the Air Force office of Special Investigation<ref>http://www.osi.andrews.af.mil/eagleeyes/index.asp</ref><br />
* 'Veilige wijk' The Hague<ref>link to be added</ref><br />
* Amber alert<ref>[[wikipedia: AMBER Alert]]</ref><br />
* Gulfport Alternative Policing strategy<ref>http://www.ci.gulfport.ms.us/police/gaps.html</ref><br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
The effectiveness of surveillance against crime is rooted in three effects:<br />
* its contribution to the reaction chain<br />
* the mitigating effect of clearly visible observation/observants<br />
* the contribution it can have to the prosecution of crime (gathering evidence and leads)<br />
<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
!colspan="4"|Security issues<br />
|-<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots| Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid|Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
* In order for surveillance to have the intended effects, it is essential that the reaction chain is unbroken. As often the links in the reaction chain are managed by different people or organisations, the communication in this chain is of vital essence.<br />
<br />
For surveillance to be effective, an observer needs to be able to oversee an area. In an urban context, the extent to which an area can be overseen by an observer is highly dependent on<br />
* the available positions for the observer<br />
* the field of vision, which is directly related to the geometry of the space<br />
* the lighting conditions<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Urban Planning can promote the natural surveillance of public space through providing for a diverse mix of land uses. A diverse mix of land uses ensures that there will be activity on the street for the most part of the day, which in turn increases the continuous presence of people on streets all the time. Areas with poor mix of land use or single use areas become deserted during certain hours of the day, creating a suitable environment for the criminal activities.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Situational crime prevention measures such as camera surveillance are subject of [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures#Crime displacement|displacement effect]]s. A UK-study (2009)<ref>Waples, S., M. Gill, and P. Fisher (2009). ''Does CCTV displace crime?'' Sage Publications.</ref> empirically tested this thesis in the UK on 13 CCTV projects and concludes that spatial displacement of crime due to camera surveillance does occur, but not in a frequent and uniform way across space and types of offences<ref>Violence against persons, for example, increased dramatically, which (according to the authors) "could be explained by the increase in reporting due to the cameras or due to the national upward trend in recorded violent crime."</ref><br />
<br />
Highly visible forms of surveillance can raise the prominence of an object, which can raise the attractiveness of the object for fanatics.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
Social side effects of surveillance can be:<br />
* increased perception of unsafety by the public (some research suggests observation of increased public security measures such as video surveillance of public places reduces citizens social fear of crime but increases their personal fear of crime (e.g. [[Security_issue:_breaking_and_entering|breaking and entering]] of their homes)<ref>CPSI project, http://www.cpsi-fp7.eu.</ref><br />
* increased perception of safety by the public<br />
* decreased perception of privacy by the public<br />
* [[Risk#Objective_and_subjective_risk|overconfidence]] <br />
* [[reflective fear]]; for example, critics argue that information technology-based solutions to security problems (including the use of video surveillance) are not suited to confront threats but only to reassure the public that something is being done. This facilitates the rise of a security culture of moral panic as illustrated by the London bombings in 2005.<ref>Alexander Siedschlag: The Concept of Security in the EU, in: Maximilian Edelbacher et al. (eds.): Global Security and the Financial Crisis. Boca Raton, FL: CRC Press (Taylor & Francis Group), pp. 51-64 (p. 59).</ref><br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
==== Of surveillance by dedicated observers on location ====<br />
Surveillance measures intend to increase the level of security, lowering the negative efffects of security threats. Security measures, however, also require time and money by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic cost/impact]]. The costs of surveillance measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions:<br />
# Are the envisioned surveillance measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the surveillance measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures adjust the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help the decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
==== Of remote surveillance by dedicated observer ====<br />
The current debate about CCTV (camera surveillance) with regards to its cost-effectiveness is pointing out the following topics:<br />
* Empirical research finds that the overall crime rates drop in the areas with CCTV, but not in all cases and situations<ref> See, ''e.g.'':Priks, M. (2010).''The Effect of Surveillance Cameras on Crime: Evidence from the Stockholm Subway''. Cameron, A., E. Kolodinski, H. May, N. Williams (2008). ''Measuring the Effects of Video Surveillance on Crime in Los Angeles''. CRB-8-007. USC School of Policy, Planning and Development.</ref>. Furthermore, crimes committed in the heat of the moment, such as assaults are in general not affected by the presence of cameras.<br />
* Total costs of CCTV far exceed that of the camera hardware alone<ref> See ''e.g.'':http://www.library.ca.gov/crb/08/08-007.pdf and http://www.guardian.co.uk/commentisfree/libertycentral/2009/dec/22/cctv-surveillance-police-cost</ref>.<br />
* To be effective, surveillance systems should be fully integrated into law enforcement practices.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
In the mobility field, surveillance is often applied for enforcement of speed limits or other traffic rules such as only parking at the allowed spaces.<br />
<br />
For speed limit enforcement, surveillance is usually applied with a radar system to measure the speed and a camera with flasher to detect the car driver by its license plate. Also trajectory control is applied, where all drivers are detected at both ends of a trajectory, after which their average speed is calculated and checked against the speed limit.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Directing_traffic_flows&diff=11841Measure type: Directing traffic flows2013-05-07T16:19:00Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]][[Category:Measure]][[Category:Safety]]<br />
'''Directing flows of people''' is a form of a [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measure that can mitigate the [[likelihood]] of a security event (preventive direction of flows of people) or reduce the [[impact]] of a security event(reactive direction of flows of people).<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Directing traffic flows is a [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measure of directing the traffic in a preferred way. Whereas this usually is done from a traffic management perspective to improve throughput of a road network<ref>For example, when a certain route is congested, the traffic can be guided to an alternative route with a dynamic route information panel (DRIP). The measure is also applied to increase safety, such as for instance to prevent flows of traffic from colliding, manage crowds or to support [[Evacuation Management|evacuation management]] in case of emergencies.</ref>, it can also be applied to increase security. In this case, the measure is usually intended to separate potential offenders from locations or circumstances where they might do harm. Examples of direction of traffic flows for security reasons include building barriers for vehicles, to provide safe transportation to and from entertainment centres across high-risk areas, to ensure a car-free zone around a building as a protection against car bombs or to separate pedestrians from motorcycles to prevent [[robbery|snatch theft]]. As a measure to reduce the consequences of an incident, crowd control at large events or transportation [[hub]]s can prevent the outbreak of disorder or riots<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_control</ref><ref>[[Image:Evacuation modeling pedestrians.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|Evacuation modelling using the pedestrian simulation model STEPS.]] Pedestrian simulation can help model the flow of pedestrians. The modelling of the individual movement of pedestrians results in a description of macroscopic pedestrian flow and allows e.g. the evaluation of escape routes, the design of pedestrian facilities and the study of more theoretical questions. A typical example of a pedestrian simulation model is [http://www.mottmac.com/skillsandservices/software/stepssoftware/ STEPS]</ref>.<br />
<br />
A traffic flow measure can be directed at all traffic, or only certain modes. For example, a water obstacle would be effective against all road transportation, a gravel pit would stop rolling vehicles, but not pedestrians and an average fence would stop pedestrians, but not ramming vehicles.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
Examples of directing traffic flow measures are:<br />
===By physical route guidance===<br />
* Signposts[[Image:Corstorphine signpost.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Signpost indicating clear routes to popular destinations]]<br />
* Traffic signs<br />
* Route guidance with Dynamic Route Information Panels (DRIP)<br />
* Route guidance and traffic information provision via navigation systems<br />
<br />
===By hard and soft [[barrier]]s blocking unwanted traffic flows===<br />
* Elevation to stop rolling vehicles or discourage pedestrians<br />
* Water or gravel barrier[[Image:Kantorengebouw Westraven in Utrecht.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Use of water as friendly barrier]]<br />
* Green barrier<br />
* [[Bollard]]s<br />
* Traffic slowing measures, such as speed ramps, discouraging rat running[[image:Rat run.svg|thumb|right|300px|Speed decreasing measures can decrease the appeal of shortcuts as rat-running routes.]]<br />
<br />
=== By psychological barriers or route guidance ===<br />
* By indicating wanted pathways by lighting<br />
* By discouraging unwanted pathways by making them seem dead-end<br />
* By intentionally designing one route to be more attractive than another (for example intentionally making an alternative road look narrow and obscure for cars, or by planning popular attractions for tourists to be along a defined route)<br />
<br />
=== By providing natural, direct routes ===<br />
* Designing pathways directly and obviously to main points of interest equipped with all required security features[[Image:Basingstoke station.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Basingstoke station featuring explicit, direct access routes]]<br />
* Increasing traffic flows in desired main through routes in a city by facilitating shorter travel times with green waves and thereby reducing traffic in less desired areas.<br />
<br />
===By regulation===<br />
* One-way streets<br />
* Prohibited places<br />
* Restricted access (for, for example, certain kinds of traffic or at specific times)[[image:Noratrun.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Restricted acces: traffic sign prohibiting a right turn during rush hours]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver"><br />
Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid|Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For measures on traffic flows to be effective, the measures should match the docility of the targeted traffic flows. For instance, an average fence can be very effective against the average pedestrian, but less effective against an motivated vandal and hardly effective at all against a fanatic terrorist. In an urban context, the realisation form of a measure should conform to the targeted public, threat level and surroundings: high, unfriendly walls will be inappropriate in a shopping area and low, open fences are inappropriate for high-risk objects.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Directing traffic flows provides a useful mechanism for reducing ease of opportunity for crime. Where possible, access to vulnerable areas (such as residential estates) should be restricted to as few routes as possible and should be designed to serve the development rather than through traffic. Unrestricted opportunities to enter, familiarise, offend and escape should be avoided. However any effort to direct traffic flows must take accessibility for emergency vehicles into consideration.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
When directing traffic flows, its impact on [[traffic safety]] should always be considered. Another safety aspect of limiting mobility is the issue of [[evacuation management]], as the ability to evacuate quickly in case of emergencies can be an important element in providing safety.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
<div style="color:red"><br />
<br />
<designing out - decreasing attractiveness of environment><br />
<br />
</div><br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Directing traffic flows does not only reduce the potential impact of security threats, but also requires time and money by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together, the benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of traffic flow management measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. <br />
<br />
In general traffic flows that are being managed will be more robust than in the opposite case. One should bear in mind though that at the same time traffic will be limited as well. This as a result of this traffic flow directing. Traffic rules such as speed limits, for example, aim to improve safety and the robustness of the road network, but at the same time increase travel time for road users Since they cannot drive as fast as wished for in all cases). Indirectly, this limited accessibility could lead to negative economic effects as a result of the less efficient transportation of goods, skills and persons. These negative impacts will reduce the functioning of the markets in the local economy, reduce the functioning of labour markets and attribute to less scale and agglomeration advances due to a decreased market size.<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions:<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the specific measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures adjust the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help the decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
An essential aspect for effectively closing or discouraging pathways is that an alternative route should be available and clear.<br />
<br />
A good road design should be such that most traffic will choose the routes as chosen by the road manager to accommodate the largest traffic flows, and not the less preferred routes such as small routes within city centres. For example, there should be clear access routes to larger ring roads and motorways with sufficient capacity leading out of urban districts.<br />
<br />
Information about alternative routes can be given to the road users with a Dynamic Information Panel (DRIP). Usually a few alternative routes are given with their actual travel times. People are thus encouraged to choose the route with the lowest travel time, which helps to reduce congestion on the alternative route. See also [[Traffic management|traffic management]].<br />
<br />
Traffic flows can also be directed by giving traffic information via navigation systems or smart phone applications.<br />
<br />
An example of a recent development with smart phone applications is an app for pedestrians during large events that indicates the crowdedness of certain areas, based on localization of other app users or blue tooth detection. This app was launched for the Dutch coronation event, though at the latest moment crowdedness indicator functionality was withdrawn out of fear that so much bandwidth would be used that emergency services couldn't communicate anymore.<br />
<br />
Another example is a parking reservation app (ref TNO). This app will guide the drivers to a parking close to their destination, which can be reserved beforehand. This prevents long waiting queues and chaos at the entrances of parking garages. Another way to do this is with Parking Guidance Information signs, showing the number of free parking spaces in several parking garages.<br />
<br />
<div style="color:red"><br />
<restricting traffic flow><br />
</div><br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Directing_traffic_flows&diff=11837Measure type: Directing traffic flows2013-05-07T16:16:12Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]][[Category:Measure]][[Category:Safety]]<br />
'''Directing flows of people''' is a form of a [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measure that can mitigate the [[likelihood]] of a security event (preventive direction of flows of people) or reduce the [[impact]] of a security event(reactive direction of flows of people).<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Directing traffic flows is a [[Traffic management|traffic management]] measure of directing the traffic in a preferred way. Whereas this usually is done from a traffic management perspective to improve throughput of a road network<ref>For example, when a certain route is congested, the traffic can be guided to an alternative route with a dynamic route information panel (DRIP). The measure is also applied to increase safety, such as for instance to prevent flows of traffic from colliding, manage crowds or to support [[Evacuation Management|evacuation management]] in case of emergencies.</ref>, it can also be applied to increase security. In this case, the measure is usually intended to separate potential offenders from locations or circumstances where they might do harm. Examples of direction of traffic flows for security reasons include building barriers for vehicles, to provide safe transportation to and from entertainment centres across high-risk areas, to ensure a car-free zone around a building as a protection against car bombs or to separate pedestrians from motorcycles to prevent [[robbery|snatch theft]]. As a measure to reduce the consequences of an incident, crowd control at large events or transportation [[hub]]s can prevent the outbreak of disorder or riots<ref>http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crowd_control</ref><ref>[[Image:Evacuation modeling pedestrians.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|Evacuation modelling using the pedestrian simulation model STEPS.]] Pedestrian simulation can help model the flow of pedestrians. The modelling of the individual movement of pedestrians results in a description of macroscopic pedestrian flow and allows e.g. the evaluation of escape routes, the design of pedestrian facilities and the study of more theoretical questions. A typical example of a pedestrian simulation model is [http://www.mottmac.com/skillsandservices/software/stepssoftware/ STEPS]</ref>.<br />
<br />
A traffic flow measure can be directed at all traffic, or only certain modes. For example, a water obstacle would be effective against all road transportation, a gravel pit would stop rolling vehicles, but not pedestrians and an average fence would stop pedestrians, but not ramming vehicles.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
Examples of directing traffic flow measures are:<br />
===By physical route guidance===<br />
* Signposts[[Image:Corstorphine signpost.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Signpost indicating clear routes to popular destinations]]<br />
* Traffic signs<br />
* Route guidance with Dynamic Route Information Panels (DRIP)<br />
* Route guidance and traffic information provision via navigation systems<br />
<br />
===By hard and soft [[barrier]]s blocking unwanted traffic flows===<br />
* Elevation to stop rolling vehicles or discourage pedestrians<br />
* Water or gravel barrier[[Image:Kantorengebouw Westraven in Utrecht.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Use of water as friendly barrier]]<br />
* Green barrier<br />
* [[Bollard]]s<br />
* Traffic slowing measures, such as speed ramps, discouraging rat running[[image:Rat run.svg|thumb|right|300px|Speed decreasing measures can decrease the appeal of shortcuts as rat-running routes.]]<br />
<br />
=== By psychological barriers or route guidance ===<br />
* By indicating wanted pathways by lighting<br />
* By discouraging unwanted pathways by making them seem dead-end<br />
* By intentionally designing one route to be more attractive than another (for example intentionally making an alternative road look narrow and obscure for cars, or by planning popular attractions for tourists to be along a defined route)<br />
<br />
=== By providing natural, direct routes ===<br />
* Designing pathways directly and obviously to main points of interest equipped with all required security features[[Image:Basingstoke station.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Basingstoke station featuring explicit, direct access routes]]<br />
* Increasing traffic flows in desired main through routes in a city by facilitating shorter travel times with green waves and thereby reducing traffic in less desired areas.<br />
<br />
===By regulation===<br />
* One-way streets<br />
* Prohibited places<br />
* Restricted access (for, for example, certain kinds of traffic or at specific times)[[image:Noratrun.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Restricted acces: traffic sign prohibiting a right turn during rush hours]]<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
Security issues where this measure can be effective and influenced by the urban planner, are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || [[Security issue: Assault|Physical assault]]{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || <span style="color:silver"><br />
Mass killing</span>{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|Pickpocketing]]{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Raid|Raid]]{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || [[Security issue: Antisocial behaviour|Antisocial Behaviour]]{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For measures on traffic flows to be effective, the measures should match the docility of the targeted traffic flows. For instance, an average fence can be very effective against the average pedestrian, but less effective against an motivated vandal and hardly effective at all against a fanatic terrorist. In an urban context, the realisation form of a measure should conform to the targeted public, threat level and surroundings: high, unfriendly walls will be inappropriate in a shopping area and low, open fences are inappropriate for high-risk objects.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Directing traffic flows provides a useful mechanism for reducing ease of opportunity for crime. Where possible, access to vulnerable areas (such as residential estates) should be restricted to as few routes as possible and should be designed to serve the development rather than through traffic. Unrestricted opportunities to enter, familiarise, offend and escape should be avoided. However any effort to direct traffic flows must take accessibility for emergency vehicles into consideration.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
When directing traffic flows, its impact on [[traffic safety]] should always be considered. Another safety aspect of limiting mobility is the issue of [[evacuation management]], as the ability to evacuate quickly in case of emergencies can be an important element in providing safety.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
<div style="color:red"><br />
<br />
<designing out - decreasing attractiveness of environment><br />
<br />
</div><br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Directing traffic flows does not only reduce the potential impact of security threats, but also requires time and money by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together, the benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of traffic flow management measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. <br />
<br />
In general traffic flows that are being managed will be more robust than in the opposite case. One should bear in mind though that at the same time traffic will be limited as well. This as a result of this traffic flow directing. Traffic rules such as speed limits, for example, aim to improve safety and the robustness of the road network, but at the same time increase travel time for road users Since they cannot drive as fast as wished for in all cases). Indirectly, this limited accessibility could lead to negative economic effects as a result of the less efficient transportation of goods, skills and persons. These negative impacts will reduce the functioning of the markets in the local economy, reduce the functioning of labour markets and attribute to less scale and agglomeration advances due to a decreased market size.<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions:<br />
# Are the envisioned measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the specific measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures adjust the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help the decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
An essential aspect for effectively closing or discouraging pathways is that an alternative route should be available and clear.<br />
<br />
A good road design should be such that most traffic will choose the routes as chosen by the road manager to accommodate the largest traffic flows, and not the less preferred routes such as small routes within city centres. For example, there should be clear access routes to larger ring roads and motorways with sufficient capacity leading out of urban districts.<br />
<br />
Information about alternative routes can be given to the road users with a Dynamic Information Panel (DRIP). Usually a few alternative routes are given with their actual travel times. People are thus encouraged to choose the route with the lowest travel time, which helps to reduce congestion on the alternative route. See also [[Traffic management|traffic management]].<br />
<br />
Traffic flows can also be directed by giving traffic information via navigation systems or smart phone applications.<br />
<br />
A recent development with smart phone applications is an app for pedestrians during large events that indicates the crowdedness of certain areas, based on localization of other app users or blue tooth detection. This app was launched for the Dutch coronation event, though at the latest moment crowdedness indicator functionality was withdrawn out of fear that so much bandwidth would be used that emergency services couldn't communicate anymore.<br />
<br />
<div style="color:red"><br />
<restricting traffic flow><br />
</div><br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Access_control&diff=11831Measure type: Access control2013-05-07T16:05:24Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Access control''' is the [[measure]] of reduction of risk by regulating and controlling the flows of traffic into and out of an area or object.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Access control can concern all modes of traffic. The aim of access control is to be able to determine who can or can't enter a particular area. This discrimination can be done on various characteristics such as whether one is in possession of a ticket, has registered in advance, the time of day, the place of entry, the mode of transport, etcetera.<br />
<br />
[[Image:BL33nw.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Boom barrier at a parking]][[Image:Bussluse 05-04-06 02.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bus trap]]This approach involves architectural features, mechanical and electronic devices, and related means for maintaining prerogatives over the ability to gain entry. Both dynamic measures (moving, acting such as boom barriers or guards) and static measures (passive, such as bus traps or heightened curbs) can function as access control mechanisms. <br />
Another application of access control are environmental zones or low-emission zones (LEZ) with the aim of improving the air quality. Only low-emitting or zero emission vehicles are allowed to a LEZ [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-emission_zone]].<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
Various means of access control are feasible, such as:<br />
* Electromagnetic doors, openable only by qualified personnel<br />
* Door guards<br />
* [[Barrier]]s, both static and dynamic<br />
* Partitioning off of selected areas during "downtime" hours<br />
* Reduced number of building entrances<br />
<div style="color:red">Removed some traffic measures, see discussion page</div><br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
This measure can be effective to a range of security issues. These are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For access control to work, one has to make sure that alternative entry routes are made impossible. For example, erecting a control post at a stadium is useless if the entrance next to it is unguarded. This means that for this measure to work, the access control has to be active at all designated entry points and all other access to the area has to be sufficiently blocked.<br />
<br />
In practice this means that this measure usually needs to be accompanied by other measure types, such as [[Measure: Target hardening| target hardening]] and/or [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to prevent uncontrolled entry points.<br />
<br />
For access control to be effective in an urban context, the object or area should support a careful consideration of access and exit points, conforming to the use of the object or area. This holds both for the number of accesses and exits and the measures used to enforce it. A football stadium, for instance, can enforce rather imposing access control measures, in some cases extending to screening and the use of violence to enforce it and still requires quick access and exit of multitudes of people. At a service-oriented facility, this type of access control would be out of place and inappropriate and less imposing and more user-friendly measures of access control are required.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Methods to control access to public space should ensure a balance between design for crime prevention and design for effective use of environment s where possible. Rather than focusing only on organised and mechanical strategies of access control (such as physical barriers), more natural strategies such as territorial reinforcement should be promoted where possible. This serves to ensure limited inconvenience (and little or no increase in travel times) for legitimate urban space users. Approaches should avoid the ‘militarisation’ of urban space.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/Security considerations ===<br />
Access control measures tend to be highly visible. This can raise the prominence of an object, which can raise the attractiveness of the object for fanatics.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Access control does not only reduce the risk of security threats, but also requires time and money by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together, the benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of access control measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. Access measures like closed roller shutters or big chain locks in shopping streets are classical examples of measures that do not create a welcome environment, creating secondary/indirect economic effects as a result of a reduction of the perceived security and quality of the environment. On top of that, access control measures can cause negative indirect effects for commercial venues like convenience stores. These negative effects are caused by a decrease in accessibility, reducing the amount of customers and increasing the costs of distribution.<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions:<br />
# Are the envisioned access control measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the access control measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures adjust the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help the decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
At closed entrances (if only to a particular mode of transport) information should be made available when and where a person/vehicle might gain access.<br />
<br />
Access control in the field of mobility is also applied for congestion charging, for example with the aim to improve the air quality. In London this is applied with camera control with license plate recognition at the entrances/exits of the city. <br />
<br />
In public transport, access control is sometimes applied with chipcards and automatic gates. The chipcards can be personnal. Access is only given to people with a valid chipcard with sufficient saldo. <br />
<br />
At private (company) parkings, acces is often regulated with an automatic barrier and a pole with communication connection to e.g. the reception desk or chipcard (electromagnetic?) control; only people with a company chipcard or people with an appointment to a known employee of the company will get access.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
To prevent ethical issues, one should make sure to be transparent about the discrimination criteria and make sure these conform to anti-discrimination legislation and customs.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Access_control&diff=11830Measure type: Access control2013-05-07T16:04:46Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>'''Access control''' is the [[measure]] of reduction of risk by regulating and controlling the flows of traffic into and out of an area or object.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Access control can concern all modes of traffic. The aim of access control is to be able to determine who can or can't enter a particular area. This discrimination can be done on various characteristics such as whether one is in possession of a ticket, has registered in advance, the time of day, the place of entry, the mode of transport, etcetera.<br />
<br />
[[Image:BL33nw.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Boom barrier at a parking]][[Image:Bussluse 05-04-06 02.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bus trap]]This approach involves architectural features, mechanical and electronic devices, and related means for maintaining prerogatives over the ability to gain entry. Both dynamic measures (moving, acting such as boom barriers or guards) and static measures (passive, such as bus traps or heightened curbs) can function as access control mechanisms. <br />
Another application of access control are environmental zones or low-emission zones (LEZ) with the aim of improving the air quality. Only low-emitting or zero emission vehicles are allowed to a LEZ [[http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low-emission_zone]].<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
Various means of access control are feasible, such as:<br />
* Electromagnetic doors, openable only by qualified personnel<br />
* Door guards<br />
* [[Barrier]]s, both static and dynamic<br />
* Partitioning off of selected areas during "downtime" hours<br />
* Reduced number of building entrances<br />
<div style="color:red">Removed some traffic measures, see discussion page</div><br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
This measure can be effective to a range of security issues. These are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Burglary</span>{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Ram-raiding</span>{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| [[Security issue: Sexual assault|Sexual assault]]{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || <span style="color:silver">Vandalism</span>{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Robbery</span>{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || <span style="color:silver">Graffiti</span>{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|Vehicle theft]]{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
For access control to work, one has to make sure that alternative entry routes are made impossible. For example, erecting a control post at a stadium is useless if the entrance next to it is unguarded. This means that for this measure to work, the access control has to be active at all designated entry points and all other access to the area has to be sufficiently blocked.<br />
<br />
In practice this means that this measure usually needs to be accompanied by other measure types, such as [[Measure: Target hardening| target hardening]] and/or [[Measure: Directing traffic flows| directing traffic flows]] to prevent uncontrolled entry points.<br />
<br />
For access control to be effective in an urban context, the object or area should support a careful consideration of access and exit points, conforming to the use of the object or area. This holds both for the number of accesses and exits and the measures used to enforce it. A football stadium, for instance, can enforce rather imposing access control measures, in some cases extending to screening and the use of violence to enforce it and still requires quick access and exit of multitudes of people. At a service-oriented facility, this type of access control would be out of place and inappropriate and less imposing and more user-friendly measures of access control are required.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Methods to control access to public space should ensure a balance between design for crime prevention and design for effective use of environment s where possible. Rather than focusing only on organised and mechanical strategies of access control (such as physical barriers), more natural strategies such as territorial reinforcement should be promoted where possible. This serves to ensure limited inconvenience (and little or no increase in travel times) for legitimate urban space users. Approaches should avoid the ‘militarisation’ of urban space.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/Security considerations ===<br />
Access control measures tend to be highly visible. This can raise the prominence of an object, which can raise the attractiveness of the object for fanatics.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Access control does not only reduce the risk of security threats, but also requires time and money by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together, the benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of access control measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. Access measures like closed roller shutters or big chain locks in shopping streets are classical examples of measures that do not create a welcome environment, creating secondary/indirect economic effects as a result of a reduction of the perceived security and quality of the environment. On top of that, access control measures can cause negative indirect effects for commercial venues like convenience stores. These negative effects are caused by a decrease in accessibility, reducing the amount of customers and increasing the costs of distribution.<br />
<br />
Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions:<br />
# Are the envisioned access control measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the access control measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures adjust the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help the decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.).<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
At closed entrances (if only to a particular mode of transport) information should be made available when and where a person/vehicle might gain access.<br />
<br />
Access control in the field of mobility is also applied for congestion charging, for example with the aim to improve the air quality. In London this is applied with camera control with license plate recognition at the entrances/exits of the city. <br />
<br />
In public transport, access control is sometimes applied with chipcards and automatic gates. The chipcards can be personnal. Access is only given to people with a valid chipcard with sufficient saldo. <br />
<br />
At private (company) parkings, acces is often regulated with an automatic barrier and a pole with communication connection to e.g. the reception desk or chipcard control; only people with a company chipcard or people with an appointment to a known employee of the company will get access.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
To prevent ethical issues, one should make sure to be transparent about the discrimination criteria and make sure these conform to anti-discrimination legislation and customs.<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Measure_type:_Target_hardening&diff=11799Measure type: Target hardening2013-05-07T11:08:30Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility considerations */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Measure]]<br />
'''Target hardening''' is the [[Measures|measure]] of strengthening the security by increasing the required effort to commit crimes to or at an object.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Target hardening involves all measures that make committing a crime more difficult and reduce the opportunities for criminals to achieve their goal. Dependent on the type of crime the realisation of this measure can take quite different forms, ranging from teaching self-defence to possible victims of assault to bomb-proofing buildings against terrorists. In general the aim of target hardening is not to make objects completely resistant to attack, but to increase the risk of an attack for an offender (by for example increasing the time it takes to overcome the measures) to a level where the risk outweighs the gain of the crime as perceived by the offender.<br />
<br />
==Examples==<br />
Examples of target hardening can be categorised by the type of attack they oppose:<br />
===Against forced entry===<br />
* Toughened glass (acrylic, polycarbon, etc.)[[Image:Bulletproof glass window after a burglary attempt.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Bullet-proof glass after a burglary attempt]]<br />
* Latticework or screens to cover windows<br />
* Deadbolt and vertical-bolt locks and door anchor hinges with non-removable pins<br />
* Metal door/window shutters<br />
* Tamper-proof screws in fittings[[Image:Screws - tamper resistant slotted.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Tamper-proof screw]]<br />
* [[Bollard]]s and indirect routes against ramming<br />
* Vertical metal or small-mesh (unclimbable) fencing<br />
* Steeply angled roofs with parapets and ridges<br />
<br />
===Against destruction===<br />
* Concrete or steel picnic tables, benches, bleachers[[Image:EU-EE-Tallinn-Pirita-Merivälja-bus stop.JPG|thumb|right|300px|Bus stop in Talinn, erected in hardened design after several vandalism incidents]]<br />
* Trash receptacles bolted to concrete bases<br />
* Hardened rubber or plastic swing seats<br />
* Fire-retardant paint<br />
* High-impact plastic or steel fixtures<br />
* Rough-play-tolerant adventure playgrounds<br />
* Slash-proof and steel-framed seats<br />
* Graffiti repellent spray on graffiti prone objects<br />
* Tamper-proof sign hardware and fasteners<br />
<br />
===Against bombs===<br />
* Stand-off zones where no unauthorized access is possible<br />
* Increasing bomb resistance for vulnerable (parts of) objects<br />
* Locating vulnerable structures behind other, bomb-resistant or sacrificial structures<br />
<br />
===Against toxins and air-borne agents===<br />
* Detectors <br />
* Closable air vents<br />
* Filter systems<br />
* Unreachable air intakes<br />
* Alternative air intakes<br />
* Emergency forced air circulation<br />
<br />
===Against violence===<br />
* Separating traffic flows of for instance pedestrians and motor cycles to prevent snatch theft<br />
<br />
===Against all of the above===<br />
* Early warning (alarms, emergency button) of action force or action force present[[File:JRW Emergency Button Located.jpg|thumb|right|300px|Emergency buttong in Metro in Japan]]<br />
* Quick response of action force (by for instance optimizing access from police station to area)<br />
<br />
== Effectiveness ==<br />
This measure can be effective to a range of security issues. These are:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"<br />
|- style="background:#f0f0f0;<br />
! Financial gain !! Boredom or compulsive behaviour !! Impulse !! Conflict in beliefs<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Burglary|Burglary]]{{#info:Burglary is the crime of illicitly entering a building with the intent to commit an offence, particularly (but not limited to) theft.}} || <span style="color:silver">Physical assault</span>{{#info:Assault, is a crime which involves causing a victim to fear or to experience any type of violence, except for sexual violence}} || [[Security issue: Destruction by riots|Destruction by riots]]{{#info:Destruction by riots is the act of vandalism of property by organised groups for a shared rational or rationalised reason.}} || [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]{{#info:Mass killing is the crime of purposely causing harm or death to a group of (unknown) people in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion. This threat is exerted out of wilful action by fanatics: terrorists or criminal activists.}}<br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Ram raid|Ram-raiding]]{{#info:Ram raid is a particular technique for burglars to gain access to primarily commercial premises, by means of driving -usually stolen- vehicles into locked or closed entrances, exits or windows.}}|| <span style="color:silver">Sexual assault</span>{{#info:Sexual assault is assault of a sexual nature on another person, or any sexual act committed without consent}} || || [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]{{#info:Destruction by fanatics is the crime of purposely causing damage in order to make a statement or to influence the public opinion.}}<br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Pickpocketing</span>{{#info:Pickpocketing is a form of theft that involves the stealing of valuables from a victim without their noticing the theft at the time. }} || [[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]]{{#info:Vandalism is the act of wilful or malicious destruction, injury, disfigurement, or defacement of property without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control.}} || || <br />
|-<br />
| [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]{{#info:Robbery is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear. It is used her exclusively for acts committed to individual persons.}} || [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]{{#info:Grafitti is the defacement of property by means of writing or drawings scribbled, scratched, or sprayed on a surface in a public place without the consent of the owner or person having custody or control. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Raid</span>{{#info:Raid is the crime of taking or attempting to take something of value from a commercial venue by force or threat of force or by putting the victim in fear.}} || <span style="color:silver">Antisocial Behaviour</span>{{#info:Antisocial behaviour is an accumulation category of relatively small crimes that highly influence the security perception of citizens. }} || || <br />
|-<br />
| <span style="color:silver">Vehicle theft</span>{{#info:Vehicle theft is the crime of theft, or attempt of theft of or from a motor vehicle (automobile, truck, bus, motorcycle, etc.).}} || || || <br />
|-<br />
|}<br />
<br />
== Considerations ==<br />
<br />
=== General considerations ===<br />
The realisation form of a measure should conform to the targeted public, threat level and surroundings: stand-off zones will be inappropriate in a shopping area and only deadbolted doors and windows are inappropriate for high-risk objects.<br />
<br />
=== Urban planning considerations ===<br />
Generally mechanisms for target hardening refer to the micro scale, affecting development/building scale and detailing. However reducing opportunities for criminal activities, and assessing the need for target hardening, can be carried out through analysis of land use.<br />
<br />
=== Safety/security considerations ===<br />
Target hardening measures aimed to improve security can have both positive and negative impacts on safety: <br />
* removing a door can harden a building against unauthorised entry, but can also reduce evacuation speed in case of emergencies such as fire<br />
* Replacing normal glass by toughened glass increases resilience both against security threats such as burglars, and safety threats such as tornadoes.<br />
<br />
=== Social considerations ===<br />
<div style="color:red">< (unfounded) decrease or increase of security perception></div><br />
<br />
=== Economic considerations ===<br />
Target hardening mitigates the negative effects of several security threats, but also requires time and money by private agents, companies/developers and the public authorities, exacting [[Economic impact|economic costs]]. Together these benefits and costs are referred to as [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]]. The costs of surveillance measures contain the relatively straightforward [[Primary economic impact|direct expenditures]] on capital equipment and operational costs (both temporary and permanent), and in addition generate various types of [[Secondary economic impact|secondary effects]]. Whether the costs are making sense from an economic point of view, depends on many factors, and can be answered by two distinct sets of questions:<br />
# Are the envisioned target hardening measures cost effective from a socio-economic point of view, or are there better alternatives?<br />
# Which specific agents (individuals, companies, sectors, authorities) are affected by the target hardening measures, and to which extend? How do the envisioned measures adjust the behaviour of these agents, and of course the [[The economics of criminal and terrorist behaviour|behaviour of criminals/terrorists]]? <br />
<br />
[[Economic tools]] can help the decision makers to answer these questions and to prevent wasteful expenditures on security (of course in collaboration with insights from criminology, sociology, etc.). A good example of efficient target hardening is [[Sustainable design#Security related aspects of sustainable design|sustainable design]] since it combines energy efficiency with security. In contrast, target hardening measures like big concrete walls or window bars in retail areas are classical examples of measures that do not create a welcome environment, creating [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]] as a result of a reduction of the perceived security and quality of the environment.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility considerations ===<br />
Some target hardening measures work by limiting the mobility or [[Accessibility|accessibility]] to a certain location or area, for example by obstacles such as [[Bollard|bollards]], barriers or low speed roads with narrows. Though this helps to prevent certain crimes, it has a negative effect on the accessibility in general. <br />
<br />
The other way around, in some cases it may help to increase accessibility in order to ensure that emergency services can reach an incident location as quickly as possible (see also [[Incident management|incident mangement]]).<br />
<br />
Routes between certain nodes are particularly vulnerable to crime, for example- homes that are on the route from a large bar may be vulnerable to vandalism and other types of minor disorder as well as to burglary. Planners can use this knowledge to help prevent crime when designing roads and accessibility routes in new communities.<br />
<br />
=== Ethics considerations ===<br />
<br />
=== Legal considerations ===<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Mixed_use&diff=11766Mixed use2013-05-03T15:45:04Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File:Mixed Use.jpg|right|200x200px|]]A '''mixed use''' development consists of a building or group of related buildings (e.g. a scheme) which are used for more than one purpose, such as a series of retail units at ground floor level, office units at first floor level and residential apartments on upper levels.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Shard_tower_London.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|Shard tower, London, an example of a mixed-use building featuring offices, a restaurant, a hotel, a tourist attraction, residences and an underground station.]]A mixed use object supports by definition various uses. On one hand, this makes making generic statements about this kind of object very difficult, as various combinations of use have very different characteristics. On the other hand, the mixed structure of this object is the main feature that distinguishes it from the other types of urban objects and this feature has some specific considerations.<br />
<br />
The fact that various functions are combined into one object type, means that these functions interact and this can lead to effects not present in uniform types of urban objects. It will be these effects we will focus on on this page.<br />
<br />
== Function ==<br />
=== Social ===<br />
Mixed land use can enhance the vitality and perceived security of areas by increasing the number of people on the street and in public spaces at different times of the day. Mixed use development also encourages more efficient use of land and can lead to a more equitable city design, allowing for reduced travel and associated costs for residents.<br />
<br />
Mixed use settings particularly demonstrate the high relevance of societal security as a frame of reference for identification of vulnerability and enhancement of resilience - for example, [[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|social/community vulnerability]] in view of the growing number of threats from global terrorism, natural disasters or crime. Urban planning practice must therefore incorporate appropriate security measures for vulnerability identification and resilience enhancements of urban objects, including from the societal point of view. Vulnerability assessment of urban objects in particular in mixed-use settings should thus take place based on different sets of indicators, from physical to social, and across several levels of reference, from individual to cultural community. <br />
<br />
It is important to consider that a society is not confined to the semiotics of architectural structure in perceiving and interpreting the vulnerability of its material environment as well as social and economic structure. Since design cannot alter human nature, it cannot be a direct answer to crime and insecurity. However, design can reduce insecurity and increase security by addressing the underlying causes, as well as the types of behaviour that lead to insecurity, such as crime. This behaviour has cultural roots that need to be understood and included in vulnerability assessment.<br />
<br />
Such an assessment can be done based on:<br />
<br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
Aspects like those listed above show how important it is to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Mixed use development yields economic benefits in terms of the optimum use of infrastructure (less need for vehicle use due to the small distances), increasing social interaction and thus a richer, more vibrant urban life. Mixed use development, however, involves higher (perceived or actual) risks for developers and investors because it is more difficult to estimate the demand of multiple types of utilities than a single use object<ref>Ministry for the Environment of New Zealand. ''The Value of Mixed Use'': http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/urban/value-urban-design-summary-jun05/html/page7.html#fig1.</ref>. Like any urban development, mixed use development creates [[Economic impact|economic effects]] for the local and regional economy, and might even enhance the viability of secondary economic activity like local convenient stores<ref>Ibid.</ref>. The economic impact of mixed use development can be estimated with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools/techniques]].<br />
<br />
With regard to security issues (see paragraph below), mixed use development has some specific issues that are depending on the specific situation. In general, crime generates [[Economic effects of crime|costs]] in anticipation of crime (e.g. locks, access control, surveillance, etc.), as a consequence of crime (loss of property) and in response to crime (police investigation, legal system, etc.). [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic effects of crime|Indirectly]], the above mentioned enhanced viability of secondary economic activity can more easily be reversed if one aspect of the mixed use is not functioning as intended (e.g. due to a lack of demand), increasing local crime rates, vandalism, etc<ref>As mentioned above, there is a higher risk of underutilisation of the mixed use development in comparison to single use dwellings, due to a lack of interest in certain elements of the mixed use dwelling (e.g. office space and/or residential units) which could result in partly abandoned dwellings, making an urban object more vulnerable for types of crime that are prone to lack of surveillance and low levels of security (such as burglary and vehicle theft). On top of that, more crowded places are also more vulnerable for crime types like pickpocketing and vandalism. Source: Ministry for the Environment of New Zealand. ''The Value of Mixed Use'': http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/urban/value-urban-design-summary-jun05/html/page7.html#fig1.</ref>. <br />
<br />
Security measures mitigate the negative effects of crime and terrorism, but are not without direct investment costs and more indirect economic effects, [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures|the economic effects of security measures]]. The ‘[[Designing out approach|designing out]]’ or '[[Sustainable design|sustainable design]]' approach in the earliest stages in the planning process could be in the long run an effective measure from an economic point of view to prevent security threats and to reduce the economic damage. In general, these measures demand larger investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
<br />
From the mobility perspective, mixed use zones are efficient in the sense that travelling distances between different types of destinations (work, leisure, living) are short. A relatively large part of the trips are made by pedestrians and cyclists (also called [[Traffic safety#Vulnerable road users safety|vulnerable road users]]) and [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]].<br />
<br />
Another important mobility aspect of mixed use area's is parking. Each different type of destination (especially shopping) needs sufficient public parking spaces. This can be offered with street parking, parking lots, or parking garages, either paid or unpaid. Finding a parking space needs extra kilometers driven, 'cruising for parking'. When there are no free parking spaces available, this could lead to urban congestion and irritation of the drivers, which could eventually lead to [[Security issue: Assault|assault]]. Parkings have furthermore a relatively high risk for several other security issues, such as [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|vehicle theft]] and [[Security issue: Sexual assault|sexual assault]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
An important aspect of mixed use development is that safety requirements from one use can extend into areas with other uses. For example, the safety requirements for a transportation [[hub]] include specific requirements that normally do not apply (to the same extent) to [[residential]] areas. However, when developing an object with a mixed use of both transportation hub and residential area, one should be careful to prevent threats associated with one use to affect another use, not designed to deal with the threat, such as terrorism, which is a more likely threat for hubs than for residential areas. Access to closed-off areas by a large and unscreened group of people (such as a residential access at the back of the station) can possibly offer opportunities to terrorists that would not exist without the mixed use. Another example would be an industrial area which also serves as a node for road traffic. Although the industrial design would normally suffice to avoid excessive risks due to industrial incidents, the presence of a busy road (with not only many potential victims, but perhaps also effects for local and perhaps national mobility if closed down) can aggravate the impact to a degree that would require measures that would not be necessary if the area was used either as transport node or industrial area.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
A mixed use development can also raise specific security issues. Analogous to the safety issues arising when uses are combined, the presence of for example a use that would be attractive for attack by fanatics with a use that would attract crowds, can lead to a security sensitive situation that far exceeds either situation apart. <br />
<br />
A mixed use area can also benefit from multiple uses, as the weakness from one use can sometimes be relieved be a second use and vice-versa. This principle is for example used in mixed commercial and residential areas, where the shops ensure a sufficient population in the street in the daytime and the residential use ensures a natural surveillance during the night time. This can potentially reduce the risk of crime types such as burglary, robbery, graffiti, etc.<br />
<br />
For the design of mixed use environments it is important to design for compatible use. For example, placing an embassy next to a day-care centre would expose the daycare centre to (a part of) the threats the embassy would face. A careful design can prevent such unwanted effects realising. Furthermore, one should realise that cities are living and evolving entities and initial designs can change in the course of time. For example, at a dual-use building of an office with internal day-care centre one would not expect excessive security risk for the day-care centre, but if the use of the office later changes to a consulate or prominent multi-national, this situation changes.<br />
<br />
There are no security issue that are specifically associated with mixed use. Rather, one should be weary of amplifying effects of security issues present from one use by another use.<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
There are no measures specifically suited to counteract the effects of mixed use of an area. Basically, the measures valid for each of the uses still apply. The only way to avoid unwanted amplifying effects of security issues by mixed use is to be aware of them and to attune the design and the measures to these effects and minimise (or negate) them.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Mixed_use&diff=11765Mixed use2013-05-03T15:41:54Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File:Mixed Use.jpg|right|200x200px|]]A '''mixed use''' development consists of a building or group of related buildings (e.g. a scheme) which are used for more than one purpose, such as a series of retail units at ground floor level, office units at first floor level and residential apartments on upper levels.<br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
[[Image:Shard_tower_London.jpeg|thumb|right|300px|Shard tower, London, an example of a mixed-use building featuring offices, a restaurant, a hotel, a tourist attraction, residences and an underground station.]]A mixed use object supports by definition various uses. On one hand, this makes making generic statements about this kind of object very difficult, as various combinations of use have very different characteristics. On the other hand, the mixed structure of this object is the main feature that distinguishes it from the other types of urban objects and this feature has some specific considerations.<br />
<br />
The fact that various functions are combined into one object type, means that these functions interact and this can lead to effects not present in uniform types of urban objects. It will be these effects we will focus on on this page.<br />
<br />
== Function ==<br />
=== Social ===<br />
Mixed land use can enhance the vitality and perceived security of areas by increasing the number of people on the street and in public spaces at different times of the day. Mixed use development also encourages more efficient use of land and can lead to a more equitable city design, allowing for reduced travel and associated costs for residents.<br />
<br />
Mixed use settings particularly demonstrate the high relevance of societal security as a frame of reference for identification of vulnerability and enhancement of resilience - for example, [[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|social/community vulnerability]] in view of the growing number of threats from global terrorism, natural disasters or crime. Urban planning practice must therefore incorporate appropriate security measures for vulnerability identification and resilience enhancements of urban objects, including from the societal point of view. Vulnerability assessment of urban objects in particular in mixed-use settings should thus take place based on different sets of indicators, from physical to social, and across several levels of reference, from individual to cultural community. <br />
<br />
It is important to consider that a society is not confined to the semiotics of architectural structure in perceiving and interpreting the vulnerability of its material environment as well as social and economic structure. Since design cannot alter human nature, it cannot be a direct answer to crime and insecurity. However, design can reduce insecurity and increase security by addressing the underlying causes, as well as the types of behaviour that lead to insecurity, such as crime. This behaviour has cultural roots that need to be understood and included in vulnerability assessment.<br />
<br />
Such an assessment can be done based on:<br />
<br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
Aspects like those listed above show how important it is to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Mixed use development yields economic benefits in terms of the optimum use of infrastructure (less need for vehicle use due to the small distances), increasing social interaction and thus a richer, more vibrant urban life. Mixed use development, however, involves higher (perceived or actual) risks for developers and investors because it is more difficult to estimate the demand of multiple types of utilities than a single use object<ref>Ministry for the Environment of New Zealand. ''The Value of Mixed Use'': http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/urban/value-urban-design-summary-jun05/html/page7.html#fig1.</ref>. Like any urban development, mixed use development creates [[Economic impact|economic effects]] for the local and regional economy, and might even enhance the viability of secondary economic activity like local convenient stores<ref>Ibid.</ref>. The economic impact of mixed use development can be estimated with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools/techniques]].<br />
<br />
With regard to security issues (see paragraph below), mixed use development has some specific issues that are depending on the specific situation. In general, crime generates [[Economic effects of crime|costs]] in anticipation of crime (e.g. locks, access control, surveillance, etc.), as a consequence of crime (loss of property) and in response to crime (police investigation, legal system, etc.). [[Economic effects of crime#Secondary economic effects of crime|Indirectly]], the above mentioned enhanced viability of secondary economic activity can more easily be reversed if one aspect of the mixed use is not functioning as intended (e.g. due to a lack of demand), increasing local crime rates, vandalism, etc<ref>As mentioned above, there is a higher risk of underutilisation of the mixed use development in comparison to single use dwellings, due to a lack of interest in certain elements of the mixed use dwelling (e.g. office space and/or residential units) which could result in partly abandoned dwellings, making an urban object more vulnerable for types of crime that are prone to lack of surveillance and low levels of security (such as burglary and vehicle theft). On top of that, more crowded places are also more vulnerable for crime types like pickpocketing and vandalism. Source: Ministry for the Environment of New Zealand. ''The Value of Mixed Use'': http://www.mfe.govt.nz/publications/urban/value-urban-design-summary-jun05/html/page7.html#fig1.</ref>. <br />
<br />
Security measures mitigate the negative effects of crime and terrorism, but are not without direct investment costs and more indirect economic effects, [[Economic effects of anti-crime security measures|the economic effects of security measures]]. The ‘[[Designing out approach|designing out]]’ or '[[Sustainable design|sustainable design]]' approach in the earliest stages in the planning process could be in the long run an effective measure from an economic point of view to prevent security threats and to reduce the economic damage. In general, these measures demand larger investments than traditional security measures, but at the same time they are able to avoid future costs due to the long-term prevention of crime.<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
<br />
From the mobility perspective, mixed use zones are efficient in the sense that travelling distances between different types of destinations (work, leisure, living) are short. A relatively large part of the trips are made by pedestrians and cyclists (also called [[Traffic safety#Vulnerable road users safety|vulnerable road users]]) and [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]].<br />
<br />
Another important mobility aspect of mixed use area's is parking. Each different type of destination (especially shopping) needs sufficient public parking spaces. This can be offered with street parking, parking lots, or parking garages, either paid or unpaid. Parkings have a relatively high risk for certain security issues, such as [[Security issue: Vehicle theft|vehicle theft]] and [[Security issue: Sexual assault|sexual assault]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
An important aspect of mixed use development is that safety requirements from one use can extend into areas with other uses. For example, the safety requirements for a transportation [[hub]] include specific requirements that normally do not apply (to the same extent) to [[residential]] areas. However, when developing an object with a mixed use of both transportation hub and residential area, one should be careful to prevent threats associated with one use to affect another use, not designed to deal with the threat, such as terrorism, which is a more likely threat for hubs than for residential areas. Access to closed-off areas by a large and unscreened group of people (such as a residential access at the back of the station) can possibly offer opportunities to terrorists that would not exist without the mixed use. Another example would be an industrial area which also serves as a node for road traffic. Although the industrial design would normally suffice to avoid excessive risks due to industrial incidents, the presence of a busy road (with not only many potential victims, but perhaps also effects for local and perhaps national mobility if closed down) can aggravate the impact to a degree that would require measures that would not be necessary if the area was used either as transport node or industrial area.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
A mixed use development can also raise specific security issues. Analogous to the safety issues arising when uses are combined, the presence of for example a use that would be attractive for attack by fanatics with a use that would attract crowds, can lead to a security sensitive situation that far exceeds either situation apart. <br />
<br />
A mixed use area can also benefit from multiple uses, as the weakness from one use can sometimes be relieved be a second use and vice-versa. This principle is for example used in mixed commercial and residential areas, where the shops ensure a sufficient population in the street in the daytime and the residential use ensures a natural surveillance during the night time. This can potentially reduce the risk of crime types such as burglary, robbery, graffiti, etc.<br />
<br />
For the design of mixed use environments it is important to design for compatible use. For example, placing an embassy next to a day-care centre would expose the daycare centre to (a part of) the threats the embassy would face. A careful design can prevent such unwanted effects realising. Furthermore, one should realise that cities are living and evolving entities and initial designs can change in the course of time. For example, at a dual-use building of an office with internal day-care centre one would not expect excessive security risk for the day-care centre, but if the use of the office later changes to a consulate or prominent multi-national, this situation changes.<br />
<br />
There are no security issue that are specifically associated with mixed use. Rather, one should be weary of amplifying effects of security issues present from one use by another use.<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
There are no measures specifically suited to counteract the effects of mixed use of an area. Basically, the measures valid for each of the uses still apply. The only way to avoid unwanted amplifying effects of security issues by mixed use is to be aware of them and to attune the design and the measures to these effects and minimise (or negate) them.<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Hub&diff=11764Hub2013-05-03T15:33:44Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[File: Transporthub.jpg|right|200px|link=]]A transport '''hub''' (also transport interchange) is a place where passengers and cargo are exchanged between vehicles or between transport modes. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Public transport hubs include train stations, rapid transit stations, bus stops, tram stop, airports and ferry slips. Freight hubs include classification yards, seaports and truck terminals, or combinations of these. For private transport, the parking lot functions as a hub <ref><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_hub></ref>. For the purposes of Urban Securipedia, we focus on two types of hub; stations and ports:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Hub type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Station || A stopping place on a public transportation route for trains, metro and tram systems, often consisting of a platform and a building or group of buildings depending on scale. The station allows passengers to embark or disembark from the mode of transport. || [[Image:Station.jpg|center|x50px|link=]]<br />
|-<br />
| Port || A port includes both airports and sea ports, and refers to the area and associated structures where planes land or take-off, and where ferrys dock or depart. They allow for modality change by passengers, etc. || [[Image:Port.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Where any aspect of the following sections on this page are considered to be specific to one of the hub types listed above, the relevant icon will be displayed.<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
* Transportation has always played an important role in influencing the formation of urban societies. Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the contribution of transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the development of societies, especially urban centres (NPTEL May 24, 2006).<br />
<br />
* Connecting modes of transport, through transport hubs aids the achievement of efficient, more accessible travel. Hubs serve to maximise the potential of existing networks, encourage the use of public transport and discourage car traffic. In order to plan effectively for transport hubs local development control processes should seek to ensure that high trip generating developments be located in such areas of high public transport accessibility, connectivity and capacity. The design and layout of sites should maximise access on foot and cycle to public transport facilities.<ref>Rudi ‘Creating transport hubs and urban development opportunities’.[Internet] Available at: http://www.rudi.net/node/22708 Accessed: 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation hubs such as a bus or railway station play an important role in making transportation more efficient since they allow the use of different modes (e.g. the combination of train and car transport) for both human and freight transport.<br />
<br />
Infrastructure in the form of transport networks has a direct [[economic impact]] on the scale of local market areas. The spatial extent of retail and other services' catchment areas, for example, is partly a function of the costs of travel by customers. In fact, a hierarchy of services provision/facilities exists determined by the transport network. This is most evident in retailing, e.g. large retail superstore, local supermarket, small corner shop. Accessibility has an impact on the spatial distribution of employment and residential preferences. In terms of location, there is likely to be a higher demand for land/property that has good accessibility both to it, and to other services/facilities/infrastructure, etc. In as much as accessibility can influence profitability then this is reflected in land prices/rents.<br />
<br />
Good planning keeps common activities close to transportation lines and hubs, minimising the need for transport and enabling individuals and transportation companies to use different modes of transport.<br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the function of transportation hubs, limiting the mobility of a society as whole. As a result the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but also have an impact on mobility themselves, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
Hubs are needed for multi-modal travelling for both passenger and [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight]] transport. Multi-modal means that more than one mode is used during the trip, for example [[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]] + [[Modes of transport#Train|train]] + [[Modes of transport#Bus|bus]]. For each interchange, a hub (like a station) is needed. Hubs are therefore essential for [[Mobility|mobility]] and [[Transportation|transportation]].<br />
<br />
Hubs are the most vulnerable part concerning security threats during a trip. Because their location is fixed and attract many people, it are popular targets for security issues such as [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]], [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]], or [[Security issue: Mass killing|mass killing]] (think of the Moscow and London metro bombings <ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref><ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref>).<br />
<br />
The design of a hub or station should be such that large flows of people can find their way to their next means of transport easily. Also in case of incidents they should be able to leave the building or station quickly. Principles from [[Crowd|crowd]] management and [[Directing flows of people|directing flows of people]] can be used for this.<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
The large amounts of people present at hubs, often in crowded circumstances, make [[evacuation management]] an important safety feature to minimize injuries in case of an incident<ref>This is subject to specialised studies, such as [http://www.secur-ed.eu/ the EU project Secur-ed]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Transportation hubs, by their nature, are vulnerable environments. Hubs cater for the transport of large numbers of travellers and goods daily, making them target rich destinations. They are easily penetrated, often characterised by multiple entry points, various service providers and agencies, vast perimeters, and restricted spaces, aspects which add to their vulnerability.<br />
<br />
The predictable presence of large groups of people, often close together, make hubs an attractive target for terrorists. These attacks can be either targeted directly at the crowd, or at the hub or objects within it, with the goal to create unsafe conditions which will injure or kill even more people than a direct attack. One way to achieve this is to weaken the structure of the building with an explosion to the point of collapse<ref>for a similar attack on a government building, see: [[wikipedia:Oklahoma City bombing]]</ref>. <br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]<br />
<br />
* Security issues can arise with intermodal transport hubs where the cross-modal nature of the facility may mean that the level of security is not consistent throughout the hub. For example a railway station at an airport may have a lower level of overall security than the airport building, yet may be just as attractive a target for terrorists.<ref>Reference: European Commission (2012) ‘COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT on Transport Security’ [Internet] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/security/doc/2012-05-31-swd-transport-security.pdf Accessed 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
The presence of great numbers of people, often close together, is also an attractive element for <br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]].<br />
<br />
The wide exposure that the large numbers of passing people bring, make this environment attractive for<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]] and<br />
* [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]].<br />
<br />
Areas near transportation hubs are attractive locations for <br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<ref>[http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_robbery/ Monk Khadija M., Heinonen Justin A. and Eck John E., Street Robbery, Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Guide No. 59, April 2010]</ref><br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Hub&diff=11763Hub2013-05-03T15:25:57Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[File: Transporthub.jpg|right|200px|link=]]A transport '''hub''' (also transport interchange) is a place where passengers and cargo are exchanged between vehicles or between transport modes. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Public transport hubs include train stations, rapid transit stations, bus stops, tram stop, airports and ferry slips. Freight hubs include classification yards, seaports and truck terminals, or combinations of these. For private transport, the parking lot functions as a hub <ref><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_hub></ref>. For the purposes of Urban Securipedia, we focus on two types of hub; stations and ports:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Hub type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Station || A stopping place on a public transportation route for trains, metro and tram systems, often consisting of a platform and a building or group of buildings depending on scale. The station allows passengers to embark or disembark from the mode of transport. || [[Image:Station.jpg|center|x50px|link=]]<br />
|-<br />
| Port || A port includes both airports and sea ports, and refers to the area and associated structures where planes land or take-off, and where ferrys dock or depart. They allow for modality change by passengers, etc. || [[Image:Port.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Where any aspect of the following sections on this page are considered to be specific to one of the hub types listed above, the relevant icon will be displayed.<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
* Transportation has always played an important role in influencing the formation of urban societies. Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the contribution of transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the development of societies, especially urban centres (NPTEL May 24, 2006).<br />
<br />
* Connecting modes of transport, through transport hubs aids the achievement of efficient, more accessible travel. Hubs serve to maximise the potential of existing networks, encourage the use of public transport and discourage car traffic. In order to plan effectively for transport hubs local development control processes should seek to ensure that high trip generating developments be located in such areas of high public transport accessibility, connectivity and capacity. The design and layout of sites should maximise access on foot and cycle to public transport facilities.<ref>Rudi ‘Creating transport hubs and urban development opportunities’.[Internet] Available at: http://www.rudi.net/node/22708 Accessed: 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation hubs such as a bus or railway station play an important role in making transportation more efficient since they allow the use of different modes (e.g. the combination of train and car transport) for both human and freight transport.<br />
<br />
Infrastructure in the form of transport networks has a direct [[economic impact]] on the scale of local market areas. The spatial extent of retail and other services' catchment areas, for example, is partly a function of the costs of travel by customers. In fact, a hierarchy of services provision/facilities exists determined by the transport network. This is most evident in retailing, e.g. large retail superstore, local supermarket, small corner shop. Accessibility has an impact on the spatial distribution of employment and residential preferences. In terms of location, there is likely to be a higher demand for land/property that has good accessibility both to it, and to other services/facilities/infrastructure, etc. In as much as accessibility can influence profitability then this is reflected in land prices/rents.<br />
<br />
Good planning keeps common activities close to transportation lines and hubs, minimising the need for transport and enabling individuals and transportation companies to use different modes of transport.<br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the function of transportation hubs, limiting the mobility of a society as whole. As a result the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but also have an impact on mobility themselves, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
Hubs are needed for multi-modal travelling for both passenger and [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight]] transport. Multi-modal means that more than one mode is used during the trip, for example [[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]] + [[Modes of transport#Train|train]] + [[Modes of transport#Bus|bus]]. For each interchange, a hub (like a station) is needed. Hubs are therefore essential for [[Mobility|mobility]] and [[Transportation|transportation]].<br />
<br />
Hubs are the most vulnerable part concerning security threats during a trip. Because their location is fixed and attract many people, it are popular targets for security issues such as [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]], [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]], or [[Security issue: Mass killing|mass killing]] (think of the Moscow and London metro bombings <ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref><ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref>).<br />
<br />
The design of a hub or station should be such that large flows of people can find their way to their next means of transport easily. Also in case of incidents they should be able to leave the building or station quickly. Principles from [[crowd management]] and [[directing flows of people]] can be used for this.<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
The large amounts of people present at hubs, often in crowded circumstances, make [[evacuation management]] an important safety feature to minimize injuries in case of an incident<ref>This is subject to specialised studies, such as [http://www.secur-ed.eu/ the EU project Secur-ed]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Transportation hubs, by their nature, are vulnerable environments. Hubs cater for the transport of large numbers of travellers and goods daily, making them target rich destinations. They are easily penetrated, often characterised by multiple entry points, various service providers and agencies, vast perimeters, and restricted spaces, aspects which add to their vulnerability.<br />
<br />
The predictable presence of large groups of people, often close together, make hubs an attractive target for terrorists. These attacks can be either targeted directly at the crowd, or at the hub or objects within it, with the goal to create unsafe conditions which will injure or kill even more people than a direct attack. One way to achieve this is to weaken the structure of the building with an explosion to the point of collapse<ref>for a similar attack on a government building, see: [[wikipedia:Oklahoma City bombing]]</ref>. <br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]<br />
<br />
* Security issues can arise with intermodal transport hubs where the cross-modal nature of the facility may mean that the level of security is not consistent throughout the hub. For example a railway station at an airport may have a lower level of overall security than the airport building, yet may be just as attractive a target for terrorists.<ref>Reference: European Commission (2012) ‘COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT on Transport Security’ [Internet] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/security/doc/2012-05-31-swd-transport-security.pdf Accessed 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
The presence of great numbers of people, often close together, is also an attractive element for <br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]].<br />
<br />
The wide exposure that the large numbers of passing people bring, make this environment attractive for<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]] and<br />
* [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]].<br />
<br />
Areas near transportation hubs are attractive locations for <br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<ref>[http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_robbery/ Monk Khadija M., Heinonen Justin A. and Eck John E., Street Robbery, Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Guide No. 59, April 2010]</ref><br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Hub&diff=11762Hub2013-05-03T15:22:51Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[File: Transporthub.jpg|right|200px|link=]]A transport '''hub''' (also transport interchange) is a place where passengers and cargo are exchanged between vehicles or between transport modes. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Public transport hubs include train stations, rapid transit stations, bus stops, tram stop, airports and ferry slips. Freight hubs include classification yards, seaports and truck terminals, or combinations of these. For private transport, the parking lot functions as a hub <ref><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_hub></ref>. For the purposes of Urban Securipedia, we focus on two types of hub; stations and ports:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Hub type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Station || A stopping place on a public transportation route for trains, metro and tram systems, often consisting of a platform and a building or group of buildings depending on scale. The station allows passengers to embark or disembark from the mode of transport. || [[Image:Station.jpg|center|x50px|link=]]<br />
|-<br />
| Port || A port includes both airports and sea ports, and refers to the area and associated structures where planes land or take-off, and where ferrys dock or depart. They allow for modality change by passengers, etc. || [[Image:Port.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Where any aspect of the following sections on this page are considered to be specific to one of the hub types listed above, the relevant icon will be displayed.<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
* Transportation has always played an important role in influencing the formation of urban societies. Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the contribution of transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the development of societies, especially urban centres (NPTEL May 24, 2006).<br />
<br />
* Connecting modes of transport, through transport hubs aids the achievement of efficient, more accessible travel. Hubs serve to maximise the potential of existing networks, encourage the use of public transport and discourage car traffic. In order to plan effectively for transport hubs local development control processes should seek to ensure that high trip generating developments be located in such areas of high public transport accessibility, connectivity and capacity. The design and layout of sites should maximise access on foot and cycle to public transport facilities.<ref>Rudi ‘Creating transport hubs and urban development opportunities’.[Internet] Available at: http://www.rudi.net/node/22708 Accessed: 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation hubs such as a bus or railway station play an important role in making transportation more efficient since they allow the use of different modes (e.g. the combination of train and car transport) for both human and freight transport.<br />
<br />
Infrastructure in the form of transport networks has a direct [[economic impact]] on the scale of local market areas. The spatial extent of retail and other services' catchment areas, for example, is partly a function of the costs of travel by customers. In fact, a hierarchy of services provision/facilities exists determined by the transport network. This is most evident in retailing, e.g. large retail superstore, local supermarket, small corner shop. Accessibility has an impact on the spatial distribution of employment and residential preferences. In terms of location, there is likely to be a higher demand for land/property that has good accessibility both to it, and to other services/facilities/infrastructure, etc. In as much as accessibility can influence profitability then this is reflected in land prices/rents.<br />
<br />
Good planning keeps common activities close to transportation lines and hubs, minimising the need for transport and enabling individuals and transportation companies to use different modes of transport.<br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the function of transportation hubs, limiting the mobility of a society as whole. As a result the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but also have an impact on mobility themselves, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
Hubs are needed for multi-modal travelling for both passenger and [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight]] transport. Multi-modal means that more than one mode is used during the trip, for example [[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]] + [[Modes of transport#Train|train]] + [[Modes of transport#Bus|bus]]. For each interchange, a hub (like a station) is needed. Hubs are therefore essential for [[Mobility|mobility]] and [[Transportation|transportation]].<br />
<br />
Hubs are the most vulnerable part concerning security threats during a trip. Because their location is fixed and attract many people, it are popular targets for security issues such as [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]], [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]], or [[Security issue: Mass killing|mass killing]] (think of the Moscow and London metro bombings <ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref><ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref>).<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
The large amounts of people present at hubs, often in crowded circumstances, make [[evacuation management]] an important safety feature to minimize injuries in case of an incident<ref>This is subject to specialised studies, such as [http://www.secur-ed.eu/ the EU project Secur-ed]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Transportation hubs, by their nature, are vulnerable environments. Hubs cater for the transport of large numbers of travellers and goods daily, making them target rich destinations. They are easily penetrated, often characterised by multiple entry points, various service providers and agencies, vast perimeters, and restricted spaces, aspects which add to their vulnerability.<br />
<br />
The predictable presence of large groups of people, often close together, make hubs an attractive target for terrorists. These attacks can be either targeted directly at the crowd, or at the hub or objects within it, with the goal to create unsafe conditions which will injure or kill even more people than a direct attack. One way to achieve this is to weaken the structure of the building with an explosion to the point of collapse<ref>for a similar attack on a government building, see: [[wikipedia:Oklahoma City bombing]]</ref>. <br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]<br />
<br />
* Security issues can arise with intermodal transport hubs where the cross-modal nature of the facility may mean that the level of security is not consistent throughout the hub. For example a railway station at an airport may have a lower level of overall security than the airport building, yet may be just as attractive a target for terrorists.<ref>Reference: European Commission (2012) ‘COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT on Transport Security’ [Internet] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/security/doc/2012-05-31-swd-transport-security.pdf Accessed 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
The presence of great numbers of people, often close together, is also an attractive element for <br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]].<br />
<br />
The wide exposure that the large numbers of passing people bring, make this environment attractive for<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]] and<br />
* [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]].<br />
<br />
Areas near transportation hubs are attractive locations for <br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<ref>[http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_robbery/ Monk Khadija M., Heinonen Justin A. and Eck John E., Street Robbery, Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Guide No. 59, April 2010]</ref><br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Hub&diff=11761Hub2013-05-03T15:21:22Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[File: Transporthub.jpg|right|200px|link=]]A transport '''hub''' (also transport interchange) is a place where passengers and cargo are exchanged between vehicles or between transport modes. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Public transport hubs include train stations, rapid transit stations, bus stops, tram stop, airports and ferry slips. Freight hubs include classification yards, seaports and truck terminals, or combinations of these. For private transport, the parking lot functions as a hub <ref><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_hub></ref>. For the purposes of Urban Securipedia, we focus on two types of hub; stations and ports:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Hub type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Station || A stopping place on a public transportation route for trains, metro and tram systems, often consisting of a platform and a building or group of buildings depending on scale. The station allows passengers to embark or disembark from the mode of transport. || [[Image:Station.jpg|center|x50px|link=]]<br />
|-<br />
| Port || A port includes both airports and sea ports, and refers to the area and associated structures where planes land or take-off, and where ferrys dock or depart. They allow for modality change by passengers, etc. || [[Image:Port.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Where any aspect of the following sections on this page are considered to be specific to one of the hub types listed above, the relevant icon will be displayed.<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
* Transportation has always played an important role in influencing the formation of urban societies. Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the contribution of transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the development of societies, especially urban centres (NPTEL May 24, 2006).<br />
<br />
* Connecting modes of transport, through transport hubs aids the achievement of efficient, more accessible travel. Hubs serve to maximise the potential of existing networks, encourage the use of public transport and discourage car traffic. In order to plan effectively for transport hubs local development control processes should seek to ensure that high trip generating developments be located in such areas of high public transport accessibility, connectivity and capacity. The design and layout of sites should maximise access on foot and cycle to public transport facilities.<ref>Rudi ‘Creating transport hubs and urban development opportunities’.[Internet] Available at: http://www.rudi.net/node/22708 Accessed: 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation hubs such as a bus or railway station play an important role in making transportation more efficient since they allow the use of different modes (e.g. the combination of train and car transport) for both human and freight transport.<br />
<br />
Infrastructure in the form of transport networks has a direct [[economic impact]] on the scale of local market areas. The spatial extent of retail and other services' catchment areas, for example, is partly a function of the costs of travel by customers. In fact, a hierarchy of services provision/facilities exists determined by the transport network. This is most evident in retailing, e.g. large retail superstore, local supermarket, small corner shop. Accessibility has an impact on the spatial distribution of employment and residential preferences. In terms of location, there is likely to be a higher demand for land/property that has good accessibility both to it, and to other services/facilities/infrastructure, etc. In as much as accessibility can influence profitability then this is reflected in land prices/rents.<br />
<br />
Good planning keeps common activities close to transportation lines and hubs, minimising the need for transport and enabling individuals and transportation companies to use different modes of transport.<br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the function of transportation hubs, limiting the mobility of a society as whole. As a result the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but also have an impact on mobility themselves, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
Hubs are needed for multi-modal travelling for both passenger and [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight]] transport. Multi-modal means that more than one mode is used during the trip, for example [[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]] + [[Modes of transport#Train|train]] + [[Modes of transport#Bus|bus]]. For each interchange, a hub (like a station) is needed. Hubs are therefore essential for [[Mobility|mobility]] and [[Transportation|transportation]].<br />
Hubs are the most vulnerable part concerning security threats during a trip. Because their location is fixed and attract many people, it are popular targets for security issues such as [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]], Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]], or Security issue: Mass killing|mass killing]] (think of the Moscow and London metro bombings).<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
The large amounts of people present at hubs, often in crowded circumstances, make [[evacuation management]] an important safety feature to minimize injuries in case of an incident<ref>This is subject to specialised studies, such as [http://www.secur-ed.eu/ the EU project Secur-ed]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Transportation hubs, by their nature, are vulnerable environments. Hubs cater for the transport of large numbers of travellers and goods daily, making them target rich destinations. They are easily penetrated, often characterised by multiple entry points, various service providers and agencies, vast perimeters, and restricted spaces, aspects which add to their vulnerability.<br />
<br />
The predictable presence of large groups of people, often close together, make hubs an attractive target for terrorists. These attacks can be either targeted directly at the crowd, or at the hub or objects within it, with the goal to create unsafe conditions which will injure or kill even more people than a direct attack. One way to achieve this is to weaken the structure of the building with an explosion to the point of collapse<ref>for a similar attack on a government building, see: [[wikipedia:Oklahoma City bombing]]</ref>. <br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]<br />
<br />
* Security issues can arise with intermodal transport hubs where the cross-modal nature of the facility may mean that the level of security is not consistent throughout the hub. For example a railway station at an airport may have a lower level of overall security than the airport building, yet may be just as attractive a target for terrorists.<ref>Reference: European Commission (2012) ‘COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT on Transport Security’ [Internet] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/security/doc/2012-05-31-swd-transport-security.pdf Accessed 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
The presence of great numbers of people, often close together, is also an attractive element for <br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]].<br />
<br />
The wide exposure that the large numbers of passing people bring, make this environment attractive for<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]] and<br />
* [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]].<br />
<br />
Areas near transportation hubs are attractive locations for <br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<ref>[http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_robbery/ Monk Khadija M., Heinonen Justin A. and Eck John E., Street Robbery, Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Guide No. 59, April 2010]</ref><br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Hub&diff=11760Hub2013-05-03T15:14:59Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[File: Transporthub.jpg|right|200px|link=]]A transport '''hub''' (also transport interchange) is a place where passengers and cargo are exchanged between vehicles or between transport modes. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
Public transport hubs include train stations, rapid transit stations, bus stops, tram stop, airports and ferry slips. Freight hubs include classification yards, seaports and truck terminals, or combinations of these. For private transport, the parking lot functions as a hub <ref><http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport_hub></ref>. For the purposes of Urban Securipedia, we focus on two types of hub; stations and ports:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Hub type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Station || A stopping place on a public transportation route for trains, metro and tram systems, often consisting of a platform and a building or group of buildings depending on scale. The station allows passengers to embark or disembark from the mode of transport. || [[Image:Station.jpg|center|x50px|link=]]<br />
|-<br />
| Port || A port includes both airports and sea ports, and refers to the area and associated structures where planes land or take-off, and where ferrys dock or depart. They allow for modality change by passengers, etc. || [[Image:Port.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Where any aspect of the following sections on this page are considered to be specific to one of the hub types listed above, the relevant icon will be displayed.<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
* Transportation has always played an important role in influencing the formation of urban societies. Although other facilities like availability of food and water, played a major role, the contribution of transportation can be seen clearly from the formation, size and pattern, and the development of societies, especially urban centres (NPTEL May 24, 2006).<br />
<br />
* Connecting modes of transport, through transport hubs aids the achievement of efficient, more accessible travel. Hubs serve to maximise the potential of existing networks, encourage the use of public transport and discourage car traffic. In order to plan effectively for transport hubs local development control processes should seek to ensure that high trip generating developments be located in such areas of high public transport accessibility, connectivity and capacity. The design and layout of sites should maximise access on foot and cycle to public transport facilities.<ref>Rudi ‘Creating transport hubs and urban development opportunities’.[Internet] Available at: http://www.rudi.net/node/22708 Accessed: 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation hubs such as a bus or railway station play an important role in making transportation more efficient since they allow the use of different modes (e.g. the combination of train and car transport) for both human and freight transport.<br />
<br />
Infrastructure in the form of transport networks has a direct [[economic impact]] on the scale of local market areas. The spatial extent of retail and other services' catchment areas, for example, is partly a function of the costs of travel by customers. In fact, a hierarchy of services provision/facilities exists determined by the transport network. This is most evident in retailing, e.g. large retail superstore, local supermarket, small corner shop. Accessibility has an impact on the spatial distribution of employment and residential preferences. In terms of location, there is likely to be a higher demand for land/property that has good accessibility both to it, and to other services/facilities/infrastructure, etc. In as much as accessibility can influence profitability then this is reflected in land prices/rents.<br />
<br />
Good planning keeps common activities close to transportation lines and hubs, minimising the need for transport and enabling individuals and transportation companies to use different modes of transport.<br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the function of transportation hubs, limiting the mobility of a society as whole. As a result the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but also have an impact on mobility themselves, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
Hubs are needed for multi-modal travelling for both [[passengers]] and [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight]]. Multi-modal means that more than one mode is used during the trip, for example [[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]] + [[Modes of transport#Train|train]] + [[Modes of transport#Bus|bus]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
The large amounts of people present at hubs, often in crowded circumstances, make [[evacuation management]] an important safety feature to minimize injuries in case of an incident<ref>This is subject to specialised studies, such as [http://www.secur-ed.eu/ the EU project Secur-ed]</ref>.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Transportation hubs, by their nature, are vulnerable environments. Hubs cater for the transport of large numbers of travellers and goods daily, making them target rich destinations. They are easily penetrated, often characterised by multiple entry points, various service providers and agencies, vast perimeters, and restricted spaces, aspects which add to their vulnerability.<br />
<br />
The predictable presence of large groups of people, often close together, make hubs an attractive target for terrorists. These attacks can be either targeted directly at the crowd, or at the hub or objects within it, with the goal to create unsafe conditions which will injure or kill even more people than a direct attack. One way to achieve this is to weaken the structure of the building with an explosion to the point of collapse<ref>for a similar attack on a government building, see: [[wikipedia:Oklahoma City bombing]]</ref>. <br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]<br />
<br />
* Security issues can arise with intermodal transport hubs where the cross-modal nature of the facility may mean that the level of security is not consistent throughout the hub. For example a railway station at an airport may have a lower level of overall security than the airport building, yet may be just as attractive a target for terrorists.<ref>Reference: European Commission (2012) ‘COMMISSION STAFF WORKING DOCUMENT on Transport Security’ [Internet] Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/transport/themes/security/doc/2012-05-31-swd-transport-security.pdf Accessed 14/3/13</ref><br />
<br />
The presence of great numbers of people, often close together, is also an attractive element for <br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]].<br />
<br />
The wide exposure that the large numbers of passing people bring, make this environment attractive for<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]] and<br />
* [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]].<br />
<br />
Areas near transportation hubs are attractive locations for <br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<ref>[http://www.popcenter.org/problems/street_robbery/ Monk Khadija M., Heinonen Justin A. and Eck John E., Street Robbery, Problem-Oriented Guides for Police, Guide No. 59, April 2010]</ref><br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Transportation&diff=11759Transportation2013-05-03T15:08:45Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File: Trans vehicles.jpg|right|200px|Transportation|link=]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport '''Transportation'''] means moving objects or people from one location to another.<br />
A transportation facility is an [[urban object]] designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and [http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/cargo goods] from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by [[Transport Infrastructure|transport infrastructure]].<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
Transportation is divided into private and [[modes of transport|public transport]]. An important distinction in the type of transport is [[modes of transport|mode of transport]]. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Transportation network object type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Road network|| A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).|| [[Image:Roadnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Road network|link=Road network]]<br />
|-<br />
| Rail network || The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services. || [[Image:Railnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=Rail network]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Hub]]s ||A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations [[Image:Station.jpg|border|x30px|Station|link=Hub#Stations]] for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports [[Image:Port.jpg|border|x30px|Port|link=Hub#Port]] for water or air transport to change modality.|| [[Image:transporthub.jpg|center|x50px|Hubs|link=Hub]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Transport is important since it enables trade between peoples, which in turn establishes civilizations.<br />
<br />
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl].<br />
<br />
However, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or [[Crowd|crowds]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation and ultimately enhance quality of life.<br />
<br />
To be implemtented: THE MOBILITY GAP: "people's mobility and transport demands depend on the socio-economic situation (the higher the income, the higher the mobility). this may give rise to substantial mobility gaps, resulting in low-income groups that are depending on public transport to be able to reach jobs that are often not in the vicinity of low-income residential areas. (JP)<br />
<br />
From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists: <br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure. <br />
This makes is important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.<ref>NPTEL (2007). Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.</ref>. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to [[Primary economic impact|direct economic impacts]] which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers<ref>Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001). An introduction to geographical economics.</ref>. The [[Economic impact|economic impact]] of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]]. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation. <br />
<br />
The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a microeconomic perspective<ref>Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Microeconomics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.</ref>with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the microeconomic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed<ref>J.P. Rodrique & T. Notteboom (2013). The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.</ref>.<br />
The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society. <br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, and in extreme cases on the mobility of a society as whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
[[Mobility]] enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. In developed and developing nations, a large fraction of people travel daily for work, shopping and social reasons. More information can be found on the [[mobility]] page. <br />
<br />
Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods. <br />
For the first, different [[Modes of transport|modes of transport]] are available, such as [[Modes of transport#Road transport|road transport]] ([[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]], [[Modes of transport#Cycling|cycling]], [[Modes of transport#Automobile|car driving]], [[Modes of transport#Bus|buses]]) and [[Modes of transport#Rail transport|rail transport]]. Important for passenger transport is also [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]]. Especially public transport has a high security risk. The past decades have shown the vulnerability of the public transport system for terrorist attacks by several tragic incidents, e.g. the 2004 Madrid train bombings<ref name="ftn1">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings</ref>, the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings<ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref>, and several attacks on the London Underground<ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref>.<br />
<br />
The transportation of goods is called [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight transport and logistics]]. It concerns the distribution of goods from the source to their destination, such as warehouses or terminals for further distribution to e.g. shops. This can involve different modes of transport as well. <br />
<br />
Transportation is facilitated by its [[Road network|road network]], [[Rail network|rail network]] and the [[Hub|hubs]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly [[traffic safety]].<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an [[attractive object]] for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction by fanatics]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing| Pickpocketing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Rail_network&diff=11758Rail network2013-05-03T15:06:48Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Urban object]][[File: Railnetwork.jpg|right|200px|Rail network|link=]]A rail network is the necessary infrastructure for trains, metro or tram. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
A rail network is the necessary infrastructure for trains, metro or tram. The track consists of two parallel steel rails, anchored perpendicular to members called ties (sleepers) of timber, concrete, steel, or plastic to maintain a consistent distance apart, or rail gauge [ref wikipedia]. Turnouts, also known as points and switches, are the means of directing a train onto a diverging section of track [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport#Trackage]. Signalling is used to control the direction of the switch and to prevent collisions.<br />
<br />
The rail network can be used both for passenger and freight transport.<br />
<br />
Vulnerable or unsafe parts of a railway network are level crossings with other infrastructure, switches, steep curves (risk of run off the rails) and [[hub|stations]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
=== Social ===<br />
Rail is one of the more sustainable modes of travel, allowing for the movement of large numbers of passengers quickly and efficiently between and within key urban centres. Light rail and metro transport services connect key areas of cities with high frequency and offer relatively inexpensive transport options for urban residents, while reducing traffic and the need for car travel.<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
By connecting geographic locations, rail networks facilitate the transport and movement of people, goods, and services, creating welfare ([[economic impact]]). In many countries, rail transport is the preferred transport mode for bulk goods (some of it dangerous), especially on long-distances. Due to the increasing expansion of cities and urban centres, the demand for large-scale passenger and freight transport has steadily grown world-wide. Historically, in many regions and countries this increased demand has been met by expanding the road networks, but rail networks provide many (indirect) economic benefits over road networks. According to a study by Deloitte Access Economics (2011)<ref>Deloitte Access Economics (2011). The true value of rail. The Australasian Railway Association.</ref> some of the benefits of rail networks are:<br />
* “Improved land use and urban densification;<br />
* Lower carbon emissions;<br />
* Reduced congestion;<br />
* Fewer accidents;<br />
* Removing barriers to social inclusion;<br />
* Improving land values; and<br />
* Enhanced energy security."<br />
<br />
Threats to rail networks are mostly limited to crime (theft of valuable materials such as copper and metal) and vandalism. There is, however, also a looming chance for terrorist assaults like in Madrid (2004) causing a direct [[Economic impact of security threats|economic damage]] of more than € 5 million on railway infrastructure<ref>Buesa, M., A. Valiňo, J. Heijs, T. Baumert, J G. Gómez (2006). The Economic Cost of March 11: Measuring the Direct Economic Cost of the Terrorist Attack on March 11, 2004 in Madrid.</ref> and indirect economic impact due to delays and blockades in rail traffic. Hence, security measures that focus on resilience can generate positive leverage compared to the necessary investments, but could also have an impact on the efficiency of transportation, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
A rail network has an important function both for passenger transport as for freight transport. <br />
<br />
For passenger transport, the tram, metro and train are important means of [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]], especially for daily commuters in and between larger cities. They operate according to a predefined schedule.<br />
<br />
In freight transport, trains are an important means of transport. Goods can be transported by containers on freight trains. Transport by train is efficient to transport large amounts of goods in one time, especially for medium long distances for international transport.<br />
<br />
Vulnerable parts of the rail network for safety/security are the interchanges and the catenary system.<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
[[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]] or theft of railway materials, like copper wiring, can compromise safety mechanisms and lead to safety risks.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Rail transportation possesses a number of unique qualities which make it particularly vulnerable to acts of terrorism or sabotage. Rail passenger facilities are designed as large open spaces which facilitate the and quick and easy movement of passengers in boarding and exiting trains. In addition, both freight and passenger rail networks travel long distances, potentially offering multiple attack points, easy escape and vast areas which are difficult to patrol and secure. The large flows of people using rail transport with relative high speeds mean targeted rail objects can be used as a force multiplier for the objective of mass killing. While freight rail does not offer terrorists the same high densities of passenger targets, it does provide alternative opportunities for attack, notably in the use of such trains to transport hazardous materials and dangerous cargoes.<ref>Riley, J(2004) ‘Terrorism and Rail Security’ RAND Corporation. [Internet] Available at: http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/testimonies/2005/RAND_CT224.pdf Accessed: 14/3/13</ref><br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]<br />
<br />
The presence of masses of people in relative confinement can be attractive for <br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]].<br />
<br />
The fact that damage along the tracks will be seem by great numbers of travellers, makes it attractive for<br />
* [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]] and <br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]].<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures that are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Due to the wide extent of a rail network, complete target hardening, surveillance, access control or intervention forces over the entire network is impracticable, if not impossible. Focus of these effort should therefore be directed to the most vulnerable elements of the network.<br />
* For [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]] and [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]], reducing visibility of objects to travellers might work as [[Measure: Removal of crime motivator|removal of a crime motivator]].<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Rail_network&diff=11757Rail network2013-05-03T15:06:17Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Urban object]][[File: Railnetwork.jpg|right|200px|Rail network|link=]]A rail network is the necessary infrastructure for trains, metro or tram. <br />
<br />
== Description ==<br />
A rail network is the necessary infrastructure for trains, metro or tram. The track consists of two parallel steel rails, anchored perpendicular to members called ties (sleepers) of timber, concrete, steel, or plastic to maintain a consistent distance apart, or rail gauge [ref wikipedia]. Turnouts, also known as points and switches, are the means of directing a train onto a diverging section of track [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rail_transport#Trackage]. Signalling is used to control the direction of the switch and to prevent collisions.<br />
<br />
The rail network can be used both for passenger and freight transport.<br />
<br />
Vulnerable or unsafe parts of a railway network are level crossings with other infrastructure, switches, steep curves (risk of run off the rails) and [[hub|stations]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
=== Social ===<br />
Rail is one of the more sustainable modes of travel, allowing for the movement of large numbers of passengers quickly and efficiently between and within key urban centres. Light rail and metro transport services connect key areas of cities with high frequency and offer relatively inexpensive transport options for urban residents, while reducing traffic and the need for car travel.<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
By connecting geographic locations, rail networks facilitate the transport and movement of people, goods, and services, creating welfare ([[economic impact]]). In many countries, rail transport is the preferred transport mode for bulk goods (some of it dangerous), especially on long-distances. Due to the increasing expansion of cities and urban centres, the demand for large-scale passenger and freight transport has steadily grown world-wide. Historically, in many regions and countries this increased demand has been met by expanding the road networks, but rail networks provide many (indirect) economic benefits over road networks. According to a study by Deloitte Access Economics (2011)<ref>Deloitte Access Economics (2011). The true value of rail. The Australasian Railway Association.</ref> some of the benefits of rail networks are:<br />
* “Improved land use and urban densification;<br />
* Lower carbon emissions;<br />
* Reduced congestion;<br />
* Fewer accidents;<br />
* Removing barriers to social inclusion;<br />
* Improving land values; and<br />
* Enhanced energy security."<br />
<br />
Threats to rail networks are mostly limited to crime (theft of valuable materials such as copper and metal) and vandalism. There is, however, also a looming chance for terrorist assaults like in Madrid (2004) causing a direct [[Economic impact of security threats|economic damage]] of more than € 5 million on railway infrastructure<ref>Buesa, M., A. Valiňo, J. Heijs, T. Baumert, J G. Gómez (2006). The Economic Cost of March 11: Measuring the Direct Economic Cost of the Terrorist Attack on March 11, 2004 in Madrid.</ref> and indirect economic impact due to delays and blockades in rail traffic. Hence, security measures that focus on resilience can generate positive leverage compared to the necessary investments, but could also have an impact on the efficiency of transportation, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
A rail network has an important function both for passenger transport as for freight transport. <br />
<br />
For passenger transport, the tram, metro and train are important means of [[public transport]], especially for daily commuters in and between larger cities. They operate according to a predefined schedule.<br />
<br />
In freight transport, trains are an important means of transport. Goods can be transported by containers on freight trains. Transport by train is efficient to transport large amounts of goods in one time, especially for medium long distances for international transport.<br />
<br />
Vulnerable parts of the rail network for safety/security are the interchanges and the catenary system.<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
[[Security issue: Vandalism|Vandalism]] or theft of railway materials, like copper wiring, can compromise safety mechanisms and lead to safety risks.<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Rail transportation possesses a number of unique qualities which make it particularly vulnerable to acts of terrorism or sabotage. Rail passenger facilities are designed as large open spaces which facilitate the and quick and easy movement of passengers in boarding and exiting trains. In addition, both freight and passenger rail networks travel long distances, potentially offering multiple attack points, easy escape and vast areas which are difficult to patrol and secure. The large flows of people using rail transport with relative high speeds mean targeted rail objects can be used as a force multiplier for the objective of mass killing. While freight rail does not offer terrorists the same high densities of passenger targets, it does provide alternative opportunities for attack, notably in the use of such trains to transport hazardous materials and dangerous cargoes.<ref>Riley, J(2004) ‘Terrorism and Rail Security’ RAND Corporation. [Internet] Available at: http://www.rand.org/content/dam/rand/pubs/testimonies/2005/RAND_CT224.pdf Accessed: 14/3/13</ref><br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing|Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics|Destruction of property by fanatics]]<br />
<br />
The presence of masses of people in relative confinement can be attractive for <br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing|pickpocketing]].<br />
<br />
The fact that damage along the tracks will be seem by great numbers of travellers, makes it attractive for<br />
* [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]] and <br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]].<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures that are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Due to the wide extent of a rail network, complete target hardening, surveillance, access control or intervention forces over the entire network is impracticable, if not impossible. Focus of these effort should therefore be directed to the most vulnerable elements of the network.<br />
* For [[Security issue: Vandalism|vandalism]] and [[Security issue: Grafitti|graffiti]], reducing visibility of objects to travellers might work as [[Measure: Removal of crime motivator|removal of a crime motivator]].<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Transportation&diff=11756Transportation2013-05-03T15:03:46Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File: Trans vehicles.jpg|right|200px|Transportation|link=]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport '''Transportation'''] means moving objects or people from one location to another.<br />
A transportation facility is an [[urban object]] designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and [http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/cargo goods] from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by [[Transport Infrastructure|transport infrastructure]].<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
Transportation is divided into private and [[modes of transport|public transport]]. An important distinction in the type of transport is [[modes of transport|mode of transport]]. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Transportation network object type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Road network|| A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).|| [[Image:Roadnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Road network|link=Road network]]<br />
|-<br />
| Rail network || The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services. || [[Image:Railnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=Rail network]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Hub]]s ||A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations [[Image:Station.jpg|border|x30px|Station|link=Hub#Stations]] for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports [[Image:Port.jpg|border|x30px|Port|link=Hub#Port]] for water or air transport to change modality.|| [[Image:transporthub.jpg|center|x50px|Hubs|link=Hub]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Transport is important since it enables trade between peoples, which in turn establishes civilizations.<br />
<br />
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl].<br />
<br />
However, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or [[Crowd|crowds]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation and ultimately enhance quality of life.<br />
<br />
To be implemtented: THE MOBILITY GAP: "people's mobility and transport demands depend on the socio-economic situation (the higher the income, the higher the mobility). this may give rise to substantial mobility gaps, resulting in low-income groups that are depending on public transport to be able to reach jobs that are often not in the vicinity of low-income residential areas. (JP)<br />
<br />
From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists: <br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure. <br />
This makes is important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.<ref>NPTEL (2007). Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.</ref>. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to [[Primary economic impact|direct economic impacts]] which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers<ref>Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001). An introduction to geographical economics.</ref>. The [[Economic impact|economic impact]] of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]]. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation. <br />
<br />
The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a microeconomic perspective<ref>Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Microeconomics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.</ref>with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the microeconomic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed<ref>J.P. Rodrique & T. Notteboom (2013). The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.</ref>.<br />
The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society. <br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, and in extreme cases on the mobility of a society as whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
[[Mobility]] enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. More information can be found on the [[mobility]] page.<br />
<br />
Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods. <br />
For the first, different [[Modes of transport|modes of transport]] are available, such as [[Modes of transport#Road transport|road transport]] ([[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]], [[Modes of transport#Cycling|cycling]], [[Modes of transport#Automobile|car driving]], [[Modes of transport#Bus|buses]]) and [[Modes of transport#Rail transport|rail transport]]. Important for passenger transport is also [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]]. Especially public transport has a high security risk. The past decades have shown the vulnerability of the public transport system for terrorist attacks by several tragic incidents, e.g. the 2004 Madrid train bombings<ref name="ftn1">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings</ref>, the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings<ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref>, and several attacks on the London Underground<ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref>.<br />
<br />
The transportation of goods is called [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight transport and logistics]]. It concerns the distribution of goods from the source to their destination, such as warehouses or terminals for further distribution to e.g. shops. This can involve different modes of transport as well. <br />
<br />
Transportation is facilitated by its [[Road network|road network]], [[Rail network|rail network]] and the [[Hub|hubs]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly [[traffic safety]].<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an [[attractive object]] for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction by fanatics]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing| Pickpocketing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Transportation&diff=11755Transportation2013-05-03T15:03:35Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File: Trans vehicles.jpg|right|200px|Transportation|link=]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport '''Transportation'''] means moving objects or people from one location to another.<br />
A transportation facility is an [[urban object]] designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and [http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/cargo goods] from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by [[Transport Infrastructure|transport infrastructure]].<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
Transportation is divided into private and [[modes of transport|public transport]]. An important distinction in the type of transport is [[modes of transport|mode of transport]]. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Transportation network object type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Road network|| A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).|| [[Image:Roadnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Road network|link=Road network]]<br />
|-<br />
| Rail network || The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services. || [[Image:Railnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=Rail network]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Hub]]s ||A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations [[Image:Station.jpg|border|x30px|Station|link=Hub#Stations]] for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports [[Image:Port.jpg|border|x30px|Port|link=Hub#Port]] for water or air transport to change modality.|| [[Image:transporthub.jpg|center|x50px|Hubs|link=Hub]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Transport is important since it enables trade between peoples, which in turn establishes civilizations.<br />
<br />
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl].<br />
<br />
However, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or [[Crowd|crowds]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation and ultimately enhance quality of life.<br />
<br />
To be implemtented: THE MOBILITY GAP: "people's mobility and transport demands depend on the socio-economic situation (the higher the income, the higher the mobility). this may give rise to substantial mobility gaps, resulting in low-income groups that are depending on public transport to be able to reach jobs that are often not in the vicinity of low-income residential areas. (JP)<br />
<br />
From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists: <br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure. <br />
This makes is important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.<ref>NPTEL (2007). Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.</ref>. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to [[Primary economic impact|direct economic impacts]] which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers<ref>Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001). An introduction to geographical economics.</ref>. The [[Economic impact|economic impact]] of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]]. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation. <br />
<br />
The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a microeconomic perspective<ref>Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Microeconomics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.</ref>with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the microeconomic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed<ref>J.P. Rodrique & T. Notteboom (2013). The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.</ref>.<br />
The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society. <br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, and in extreme cases on the mobility of a society as whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
[[Mobility]] enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. More information can be found on the [[mobility]] page.<br />
<br />
Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods. <br />
For the first, different [[Modes of transport|modes of transport]] are available, such as [[Modes of transport#Road transport|road transport]] ([[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]], [[Modes of transport#Cycling|cycling]], [[Modes of transport#Automobile|car driving]], [[Modes of transport#Bus|buses]]) and [[Modes of transport#Rail transport|rail transport]]. Important for passenger transport is also [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]]. Especially public transport has a high security risk. The past decades have shown the vulnerability of the public transport system for terrorist attacks by several tragic incidents, e.g. the 2004 Madrid train bombings<ref name="ftn1">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings</ref>, the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings<ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref>, and several attacks on the London Underground<ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
The transportation of goods is called [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight transport and logistics]]. It concerns the distribution of goods from the source to their destination, such as warehouses or terminals for further distribution to e.g. shops. This can involve different modes of transport as well. <br />
<br />
Transportation is facilitated by its [[Road network|road network]], [[Rail network|rail network]] and the [[Hub|hubs]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly [[traffic safety]].<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an [[attractive object]] for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction by fanatics]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing| Pickpocketing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Transportation&diff=11754Transportation2013-05-03T15:02:58Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File: Trans vehicles.jpg|right|200px|Transportation|link=]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport '''Transportation'''] means moving objects or people from one location to another.<br />
A transportation facility is an [[urban object]] designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and [http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/cargo goods] from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by [[Transport Infrastructure|transport infrastructure]].<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
Transportation is divided into private and [[modes of transport|public transport]]. An important distinction in the type of transport is [[modes of transport|mode of transport]]. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Transportation network object type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Road network|| A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).|| [[Image:Roadnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Road network|link=Road network]]<br />
|-<br />
| Rail network || The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services. || [[Image:Railnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=Rail network]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Hub]]s ||A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations [[Image:Station.jpg|border|x30px|Station|link=Hub#Stations]] for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports [[Image:Port.jpg|border|x30px|Port|link=Hub#Port]] for water or air transport to change modality.|| [[Image:transporthub.jpg|center|x50px|Hubs|link=Hub]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Transport is important since it enables trade between peoples, which in turn establishes civilizations.<br />
<br />
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl].<br />
<br />
However, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or [[Crowd|crowds]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation and ultimately enhance quality of life.<br />
<br />
To be implemtented: THE MOBILITY GAP: "people's mobility and transport demands depend on the socio-economic situation (the higher the income, the higher the mobility). this may give rise to substantial mobility gaps, resulting in low-income groups that are depending on public transport to be able to reach jobs that are often not in the vicinity of low-income residential areas. (JP)<br />
<br />
From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists: <br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure. <br />
This makes is important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.<ref>NPTEL (2007). Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.</ref>. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to [[Primary economic impact|direct economic impacts]] which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers<ref>Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001). An introduction to geographical economics.</ref>. The [[Economic impact|economic impact]] of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]]. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation. <br />
<br />
The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a microeconomic perspective<ref>Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Microeconomics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.</ref>with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the microeconomic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed<ref>J.P. Rodrique & T. Notteboom (2013). The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.</ref>.<br />
The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society. <br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, and in extreme cases on the mobility of a society as whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
[[Mobility]] enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. More information can be found on the [[mobility]] page.<br />
<br />
Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods. <br />
For the first, different [[Modes of transport|modes of transport]] are available, such as [[Modes of transport#Road transport|road transport]] ([[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]], [[Modes of transport#Cycling|cycling]], [[Modes of transport#Automobile|car driving]], [[Modes of transport#Bus|buses]]) and [[Modes of transport#Rail transport|rail transport]]. Important for passenger transport is also [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]]. Especially public transport has a high security risk. The past decades have shown the vulnerability of the public transport system for terrorist attacks by several tragic incidents, e.g. the 2004 Madrid train bombings<ref name="ftn1">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2004_Madrid_train_bombings</ref>, the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings<ref name="ftn2">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2010_Moscow_Metro_bombings</ref>, and several attacks on the London Underground<ref name="ftn3">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Attacks_on_the_London_Underground</ref><br />
<br />
<br />
The transportation of goods is called [[Modes of transport#Freight transport and logistics|freight transport and logistics]].<br />
<br />
Transportation is facilitated by its [[Road network|road network]], [[Rail network|rail network]] and the [[Hub|hubs]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly [[traffic safety]].<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an [[attractive object]] for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction by fanatics]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing| Pickpocketing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Transportation&diff=11753Transportation2013-05-03T15:01:15Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File: Trans vehicles.jpg|right|200px|Transportation|link=]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport '''Transportation'''] means moving objects or people from one location to another.<br />
A transportation facility is an [[urban object]] designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and [http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/cargo goods] from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by [[Transport Infrastructure|transport infrastructure]].<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
Transportation is divided into private and [[modes of transport|public transport]]. An important distinction in the type of transport is [[modes of transport|mode of transport]]. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Transportation network object type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Road network|| A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).|| [[Image:Roadnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Road network|link=Road network]]<br />
|-<br />
| Rail network || The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services. || [[Image:Railnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=Rail network]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Hub]]s ||A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations [[Image:Station.jpg|border|x30px|Station|link=Hub#Stations]] for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports [[Image:Port.jpg|border|x30px|Port|link=Hub#Port]] for water or air transport to change modality.|| [[Image:transporthub.jpg|center|x50px|Hubs|link=Hub]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Transport is important since it enables trade between peoples, which in turn establishes civilizations.<br />
<br />
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl].<br />
<br />
However, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or [[Crowd|crowds]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation and ultimately enhance quality of life.<br />
<br />
To be implemtented: THE MOBILITY GAP: "people's mobility and transport demands depend on the socio-economic situation (the higher the income, the higher the mobility). this may give rise to substantial mobility gaps, resulting in low-income groups that are depending on public transport to be able to reach jobs that are often not in the vicinity of low-income residential areas. (JP)<br />
<br />
From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists: <br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure. <br />
This makes is important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.<ref>NPTEL (2007). Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.</ref>. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to [[Primary economic impact|direct economic impacts]] which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers<ref>Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001). An introduction to geographical economics.</ref>. The [[Economic impact|economic impact]] of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]]. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation. <br />
<br />
The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a microeconomic perspective<ref>Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Microeconomics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.</ref>with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the microeconomic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed<ref>J.P. Rodrique & T. Notteboom (2013). The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.</ref>.<br />
The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society. <br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, and in extreme cases on the mobility of a society as whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
[[Mobility]] enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. More information can be found on the [[mobility]] page.<br />
<br />
Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods. <br />
For the first, different [[Modes of transport|modes of transport]] are available, such as [[Modes of transport#Road transport|road transport]] ([[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]], [[Modes of transport#Cycling|cycling]], [[Modes of transport#Automobile|car driving]], [[Modes of transport#Bus|buses]]) and [[Modes of transport#Rail transport|rail transport]]. Important for passenger transport is also [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]]. Especially public transport has a high security risk. The past decades have shown the vulnerability of these for terrorist attacks by several tragic incidents, e.g. the 2004 Madrid train bombings[3], the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings[4], and several attacks on the London Underground[5] <br />
<br />
The transportation of goods is called [[Freight transport and logistics|freight transport and logistics]].<br />
<br />
Transportation is facilitated by its [[Road network|road network]], [[Rail network|rail network]] and the [[Hub|hubs]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly [[traffic safety]].<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an [[attractive object]] for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction by fanatics]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing| Pickpocketing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdienhttps://securipedia.eu/index.php?title=Transportation&diff=11752Transportation2013-05-03T14:55:36Z<p>Gerdien: /* Mobility */</p>
<hr />
<div>[[Category:Mobility]]<br />
[[Category:Urban object]]<br />
[[File: Trans vehicles.jpg|right|200px|Transportation|link=]][http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transport '''Transportation'''] means moving objects or people from one location to another.<br />
A transportation facility is an [[urban object]] designated to facilitating the movement of people, cattle, animals and [http://en.wikipedia.org.wiki/cargo goods] from one location to another. Transportation is facilitated by [[Transport Infrastructure|transport infrastructure]].<br />
<br />
==Description==<br />
Transportation is divided into private and [[modes of transport|public transport]]. An important distinction in the type of transport is [[modes of transport|mode of transport]]. In an urban context, the most relevant modes of transport will typically operate under the following transportation objects:<br />
<br />
{| class="wikitable"<br />
|-<br />
! Transportation network object type !! Description !! Icon<br />
|-<br />
| Road network|| A series of roads connecting the constituents parts of the urban environment and its surrounding hinterland, and urban areas with the wider region and country. The road network consists of a range of different hierarchical standards of road (e.g. single street, dual carriageway, highway/motorway, etc).|| [[Image:Roadnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Road network|link=Road network]]<br />
|-<br />
| Rail network || The rail network consists of the infrastructure connecting population nodes through a series of rail corridors. The rail network facilitates public transportation services, including train, metro and tram services. || [[Image:Railnetwork.jpg|center|x50px|Rail network|link=Rail network]]<br />
|-<br />
| [[Hub]]s ||A transport hub is a connection point in the wider transport network where the public can change transport modes. Hubs include stations [[Image:Station.jpg|border|x30px|Station|link=Hub#Stations]] for train, metro and tram systems, or sea/air ports [[Image:Port.jpg|border|x30px|Port|link=Hub#Port]] for water or air transport to change modality.|| [[Image:transporthub.jpg|center|x50px|Hubs|link=Hub]]<br />
|}<br />
<br />
Transport is important since it enables trade between peoples, which in turn establishes civilizations.<br />
<br />
Transport plays an important part in economic growth and globalization, but most types cause [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air_pollution air pollution] and [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Land_use use large amounts of land]. Good planning of transport is essential to make traffic flow, and restrain [http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urban_sprawl urban sprawl].<br />
<br />
However, transportation is generally very vulnerable for security threats. It is an attractive target because of its importance in society and the presence of large amounts of people or [[Crowd|crowds]].<br />
<br />
== Functions ==<br />
<br />
=== Social ===<br />
High quality transport links ensure that communities can access basic services, facilities and employment opportunities. The connectivity provided by such links promotes social inclusion, can reduce social isolation and ultimately enhance quality of life.<br />
<br />
To be implemtented: THE MOBILITY GAP: "people's mobility and transport demands depend on the socio-economic situation (the higher the income, the higher the mobility). this may give rise to substantial mobility gaps, resulting in low-income groups that are depending on public transport to be able to reach jobs that are often not in the vicinity of low-income residential areas. (JP)<br />
<br />
From the social point of view, vulnerability assessment and deriving of resilience requirements for urban planning is a complex process in the case of transportation infrastructure. This is so because common indicators point into different directions based on the following checklists: <br />
*[[Vulnerability#Social.2Fcommunity_vulnerability|List of indicators for assessment of subjective protection requirements of critical infrastructure]]<br />
*[[Critical_infrastructure#Types_of_impact_of_critical_infrasture_failure_on_citizens_and_society|Types of impact of critical infrastucture failure on citizens and society and needs to protect it]]<br />
*[[Failure_of_critical_services#Societal_aspects|Societal aspects of failure of critical services]]<br />
<br />
For example, citizens can perceive direct benefit of transportation infrastructure, which should increase felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect. However, transportation is an infrastructure that allows to considerable extent for perception of own capability to control the infrastructure. This should decrease citizens’ felt risks to that infrastructure and needs to protect, including reduced acceptance levels for security-enhancing measures in urban planning. At the same time, the high degree of exposure to transportation infrastructure should again increases citizens’ felt risks to urban infrastructure and needs to protect, as well as felt individual dependence on transportation infrastructure. <br />
This makes is important to involve citizens in related urban-object risk assessment. VITRUV identified a set of practical methods for such [[citizen participation]].<br />
<br />
=== Economic ===<br />
Transportation is a crucial component of every economy since it enables the transport of resources from one location to the other, enabling people and societies as a whole to produce welfare. Transported resources can range from material objects such as natural resources and manufactured products to labour, knowledge and skills in the form of people.<ref>NPTEL (2007). Chapter 3. Role of Transportation in Society.</ref>. Efficient transport systems provide economic and social benefits such as a better accessibility to markets, employment, knowledge (schools) and investors. These benefits are the result of a reduction in transportation costs and lead to [[Primary economic impact|direct economic impacts]] which can be measured in terms of employment, added value, investment costs, etc. Note, however, that these transportation costs are not just the result of physical infrastructure such as roads and airports, but also of many other different kind of obstacles such as tariffs, language and culture barriers<ref>Brakman, S., H. Garretsen and C. van Marrewijk (2001). An introduction to geographical economics.</ref>. The [[Economic impact|economic impact]] of transportation extends in most cases beyond these direct effects due to the further rounds of economic activity as a result of the transportation of goods, the so-called [[Secondary economic impact|indirect economic effects]]. Transportation, however, also has a social and an environmental impact, which is not in all cases positive. Congestion, traffic accidents, environmental pollution and land consumption are well-known examples of these social or external effects of transportation. <br />
<br />
The economic impact of transportation can be assessed from both a macroeconomic perspective and a microeconomic perspective<ref>Macroeconomics is the branch of economics dealing with an economy as a whole, rather than individual markets and persons. Microeconomics studies the behaviour of individual households, firms and organisations while dealing with scarcity.</ref>with the help of [[Economic tools|economic tools]] such as the [[Social cost-benefit analysis|social cost-benefit analysis]] in case investments in transportation have to be appraised. At the microeconomic level, transportation is linked to the costs of transportation for individual agents, while at a macroeconomic level the importance of transportation for an economy as a whole is assessed<ref>J.P. Rodrique & T. Notteboom (2013). The Geography of Transport Systems. 3rd Edition.</ref>.<br />
The economic impact of transportation is directly linked to the location of an urban object/environment. Locations with low levels of accessibility such as cities surrounded by mountains tend to have higher costs for many goods and services, limiting the welfare of individuals and society. <br />
<br />
In general, security threats will have a negative effect on the mobility of individuals, and in extreme cases on the mobility of a society as whole. As a result, the positive economic impact of an efficient transportation system will be partly reversed (the [[Economic impact of security threats|economic impact of security threats]]). Security measures such as directing traffic flows and access control, can reduce these negative impacts, but can also have a negative impact on the efficiency of transportation networks, also referred to as the [[Economic impact of security measures|economic impact of security measures]].<br />
<br />
=== Mobility ===<br />
[[Mobility]] enables transportation. It is obvious that mobility is very important for the daily life of humans and as such, the continuity of the traffic should be guaranteed. Mobility is fundamental to economic and social activities. More information can be found on the [[mobility]] page.<br />
Transportation can either mean transportation of people or transportation of goods. For the first, different [[Modes of transport|modes of transport]] are available, such as [[Modes of transport#Road transport|road transport]] ([[Modes of transport#Walking|walking]], [[Modes of transport#Cycling|cycling]], [[Modes of transport#Automobile|car driving]], [[Modes of transport#Bus|buses]]) and [[Modes of transport#Rail transport|rail transport]]. Important for passenger transport is also [[Modes of transport#Public transport|public transport]].<br />
<br />
=== Safety ===<br />
Specific safety issues in transportation objects concern mainly [[traffic safety]].<br />
<br />
== Security Issues ==<br />
Security issues associated with transportation objects, are related with the fact that it can be an [[attractive object]] for fanatics. This is related with the fact that many transportation objects government assets have public access areas with a high volume of transiting people and with the public attention an attack to a public transportation node will draw. Also, transportation nodes are places with crowds and distracted people, often with valuable luggage. The presence of a high volume of travellers makes graffiti visible to a large audience. This makes these kinds of urban objects vulnerable for the following security issues:<br />
* [[Security issue: Destruction by fanatics| Destruction by fanatics]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Mass killing| Mass killing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Pickpocketing| Pickpocketing]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Robbery|Robbery]]<br />
* [[Security issue: Grafitti|Graffiti]]<br />
<br />
== Measures ==<br />
The measures for each type of security issue can be found on the respective pages. There are few measures they are specifically suited or unsuited to this kind of urban object, but some general considerations can be mentioned:<br />
<br />
* Transportation objects in general know a very high transitory flow. This makes entry/exit control or even screening of visitors often very difficult or even impossible. Airports, which do feature entrance/exit control, can afford to do so due to the relative long boarding times (hours instead of minutes for a metro or bus), and the relative high travel costs (hundreds of euros instead of a few euros per passenger).<br />
<br />
{{references}}</div>Gerdien